Protein engineering

ABSTRACT

Methods of optimizing mRNA sequences for expression in host cells are provided. Methods of determining the stability of a protein are also provided. Methods of determining the affinity of a ligand for a protein are also provided.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is related to and claims the benefit of priority ofU.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/264,602 filed Nov. 25,2009 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/308,553 filedFeb. 26, 2010, which are incorporated herein by reference in theirentirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was made with United States government support from NIHDirector's Pioneer Award (5 DPI OD000122-05) and U.S. Dept of HomelandSecurity (HSHODC-08-C-00099). The United States government has certainrights in this invention.

SEQUENCE LISTING

The sequence listing is provided with the filing of the application inelectronic form only, and is incorporated herein by reference. Thesequence listing file “028193_(—)9073US02.txt” was generated on Nov. 24,2010 and is 36,166 bytes in size.

BACKGROUND

Quantitative description of the factors that determine proteinexpression levels is central to understanding natural systems, design ofsynthetic systems, and the biotechnology of heterologous geneexpression. Protein expression is a complex, multi-step processinvolving transcription, mRNA stability, translation, post-translationalprocessing, and physical and biological protein stability. Although muchof the information controlling expression levels is encoded in theuntranslated regions of bacterial genes, sequence variation in the openreading frames (ORFs) also can have profound effects on proteinexpression levels. Within the context of a constant amino acid sequenceconsiderable nucleic acid sequence variation can be achieved alteringfour factors: nucleotide composition, levels of RNA secondary structure,codon identity, and the presence of or absence of recognition sequencesfor stimulatory or inhibitory factors.

Even though considerable experimental and bioinformatic evidence hasaccumulated for the importance of each of these factors, it has not beenpossible to distill a unifying quantitative description. Systematic,simultaneous examination of these factors is difficult, because of thechallenges in constructing the requisite large number of isocodingsequences. A recent study of the heterologous expression levels in acombinatorial library green fluorescent protein determined thathigh-frequency codon choice was not the dominant factor, but rather thatthe degree of secondary structure in the ribosome binding site at the 5′region of the ORF was inversely related to the expression levels. SeeKudla et al., Science 324: 255-8 (2009). Even so, this study identifieda quantitative link between this factor and protein expression levelsfor only ˜50% of the experimentally observed population.

Biomolecular function is most often the consequence of interactionsbetween molecules (enzymes with substrates, inhibitors, or activators;receptors with ligands; protein-protein networks; protein-DNA;protein-RNA). Such functional interactions affect protein stability byvirtue of a thermodynamic linkage relationship between the Gibbs freeenergy of folding (ΔG_(fold)) and the free energy ligand binding(ΔG_(bind)) to the native (N) or denatured (D) states:

Macromolecular stability is therefore one of the fundamentalthermodynamic measures in biochemistry as it can quantitatively reporton structure-function relationships and provide a universal monitor forbiochemical function.

There are two distinct approaches for determining protein stability. Thefirst measures the free energy of protein folding/unfolding (hereinafter“(un)folding”) under equilibrium conditions by assessing the fraction ofthe native state using spectroscopy, hydrodynamic observations,functional assays, or calorimetry. The second exploits the relationshipbetween protein dynamics and stability by monitoring the differentialreactivity of internal chemical groups in native and unfolded states.This approach measures conformational free energies which, underappropriate conditions, correspond to global protein stability. Amideproton exchange is used commonly to monitor such differentialreactivity, but its widespread use to assess biological function isoften limited by the need for specialized instrumentation and relativelylarge amounts of protein. Recently, cysteine reactivity has emerged asanother means to determine rates of protein (un)folding and estimateprotein stabilities. See, e.g., Ha et al., Nat. Struct. Biol. 5: 730-737(1998); Feng et al., J. Mol. Biol. 314: 153-166 (2001); Sridevi et al.,Biochemistry 41: 1568-1578 (2002); Jha et al., J. Biol. Chem. 282:37479-37491 (2007); and Silverman et al., J. Mol. Biol. 324: 1031-1040(2002). Nevertheless, existing methods fail to employ thehigh-sensitivity methods that are required for miniaturization of theassays (e.g. using protein at picomole levels), do not fully develop thetheory that establishes at what temperatures the linkage betweencysteine reactivity and protein stability is valid, nor do they presenthow linkage between stability and ligand binding can be established todetermine affinities using these methods. Given the state of the art;additional methods for improving and optimizing protein expression andfor assessing protein stability such as allowing for use of smallquantities (e.g., picomoles) of protein are needed.

SUMMARY

In an aspect, the disclosure provides a method of optimizing an mRNAsequence for protein expression, comprising determining an AUcomposition of a first percentage in a last portion of a protein codingregion of the mRNA sequence; altering the AU composition of the lastportion of the protein coding region of the selected mRNA sequencewithout changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that the AUcomposition of the last portion of the coding region in the optimizedmRNA sequence is a second percentage.

In an aspect, the disclosure provides a method of optimizing an mRNAsequence for protein expression, comprising determining an AUcomposition of a first percentage in a last portion of a protein codingregion of the mRNA sequence; altering the AU composition of the lastportion of the protein coding region of the selected mRNA sequencewithout changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that the AUcomposition of the last portion of the coding region in the optimizedmRNA sequence is a second percentage; and optionally further comprisingany one or more of:

-   -   altering the AU composition of a first portion of the coding        region of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the        encoded amino acid sequence, such that the AU composition of the        first portion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA        sequence is a third percentage;    -   altering the AU composition of a middle portion of the selected        mRNA sequence, wherein the middle portion is between the first        portion and the last portion of the coding region, such that the        AU composition of the middle region of the optimized mRNA        sequence is a fourth percentage;    -   altering the sequence of a first portion of the coding region of        the selected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino        acid sequence, such that the first portion of the coding region        of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to have less        secondary structure relative to the first portion of the coding        region of the selected mRNA sequence;    -   altering the sequence of a last portion of the coding region of        the selected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino        acid sequence, such that the last portion of the coding region        of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to have less        secondary structure relative to the portion of the coding region        of the selected mRNA sequence;    -   altering the sequence of a middle portion of the coding region        of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino        acid sequence, such that the middle portion of the coding region        of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to have less        secondary structure relative to the portion of the coding region        of the selected mRNA sequence; or    -   altering the sequence of the coding region of the selected mRNA        sequence such that at least one codon is replaced with a codon        that is used at higher frequency in a selected host cell.

In an aspect, the disclosure provides a method of determining thestability of a protein comprising mutating a selected amino acid residueof the protein to a cysteine to form a mutant protein, wherein theselected residue is predicted to be located in a hydrophobic core of theprotein; incubating the mutant protein with a thiol-reactive probe underconditions that allow for thiol-reactive probe binding; and detecting aprobe-labeled mutant protein.

In an aspect, the disclosure provides a method of determining theaffinity of a ligand for a protein comprising mutating a selected aminoacid residue of the protein to a cysteine to form a mutant protein,wherein the selected residue is predicted to be located in a hydrophobiccore of the protein; incubating the mutant protein with a thiol-reactiveprobe in the presence of the ligand; and detecting a probe-labeledmutant protein formed in the presence of the ligand.

In an aspect, the disclosure provides a method of determining theaffinity of a ligand for a protein comprising mutating a selected aminoacid residue of the protein to a cysteine to form a mutant protein,wherein the selected residue is predicted to be located in a hydrophobiccore of the protein; incubating the mutant protein with a thiol-reactiveprobe in the presence of the ligand; detecting a probe-labeled mutantprotein formed in the presence of the ligand; and separately, incubatingthe mutant protein with a thiol-reactive probe in the absence of theligand; and detecting a probe-labeled mutant protein formed in theabsence of the ligand.

In an aspect the disclosure provides a computer readable storage mediumcomprising a set of instructions that are executable by a microprocessorto perform the function of optimizing an mRNA sequence for proteinexpression that comprises

-   -   determining an AU composition of a first percentage in a last        portion of a protein coding region of the mRNA sequence; and    -   altering the AU composition of the last portion of the protein        coding region of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the        encoded amino acid sequence, such that the AU composition of the        last portion of the coding region in the optimized mRNA sequence        is a second percentage.

The disclosure provides a number of additional aspects and embodimentsthat will be apparent to one of skill in the art in light of thefollowing description.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIGS. 1A-F show regional variation of nucleotide composition, RNAsecondary structure, and codon adaptation index (CAI) within the openreading frames of 816 fully sequenced bacterial genomes. Blue,N-terminal region (first 35 bases); red, middle region; green,C-terminal region (last 35 bases). Circles indicate the values of theseparameters for E. coli strain K-12 DH10B. FIG. 1A shows the mean ORFregional nucleotide composition. The regional mean nucleotidecomposition was calculated for each genome and reported as the ratio ofthe composition of that region to that of the entire genome. FIG. 1Bshows the variances of the mean genomic regional nucleotidecompositions. FIG. 1C shows the mean ORF regional secondary structurecontent. The score is reported as the ratio of a region relative to theentire genome. FIG. 1D shows the variances of the mean ORF regionalsecondary structure content. FIG. 1E shows the regional CAI. Codontables were determined for individual genomes and CAI values calculatedas a geometric mean of the codon preference scores within each region.FIG. 1F shows the variances of the regional CAI values.

FIG. 2 shows the sequence coverage obtained by LC-MS/MS analysis forThermus thermophilus Aspartate aminostransferase (ttAST; SEQ ID NO:1),Gallus gallus Fatty acid binding protein (ggFABP; SEQ ID NO:2) andLeishmania mexicana Triose phosphate isomerase (lmTIM; SEQ ID NO:3).Underlined amino acids indicate protein regions for which peptides weresequenced by tandem mass spectrometry. Italicized amino acids denotesamino acids that were modified during sample processing, i.e.,carbamidomethylated (Cys) or oxidized (Met). Proteins include N-terminalmethionine.

FIGS. 3A-G show the experimental expression levels of synthetic genesmeasured using E. coli coupled in vitro transcription and translationreactions.

FIG. 4 shows the structure of the synthetic expression constructs, andthe regions that are changed by the mRNA sequence design algorithmORFOPT. The open reading frame is flanked by 5′ and 3′ untranslatedregions containing the T7 promoter/translation initiation sequence andT7 terminator respectively. The 35-base terminal segments within the ORFare indicated in red and orange.

FIGS. 5A-F shows the construction of a mathematical function thatcalculates the experimentally observed protein expression levels fromthe mRNA nucleotide sequences. FIG. 5A shows the N-terminal composition,FIG. 5B shows the C-terminal composition, FIG. 5C shows the codonadaptation index, FIG. 5D shows the N-terminal secondary structurecontent, FIG. 5E shows the middle segment secondary structure contentand FIG. 5F shows the C-terminal secondary structure content. Each ofthe six parameters (two regional nucleotide compositions, three regionalsecondary structure scores, and the CAI determined over the entire ORF)are represented as a sum of two sigmoidal curves corresponding topenalty and reward thresholds, respectively. The left column showsdensity plots of the distribution of sigmoids in the ensemble ofnear-optimal solutions. The false coloring indicates the density ofsigmoidal surves passing through a region (magenta,none<blue<green<yellow<red, high density). The middle column shows thesigmoids of the parameter set that best fits the data. The score of eachcomponent ranges [−200,200]; their sum is mapped onto the proteinexpression category as <−100→0 (no expression), [−100,0]→1 (poor),[0,100]→2 (mediocre), >100→3 (good). The right column shows thedistribution of parameters in the experimental dataset.

FIG. 6A shows the relative accuracy of the function linking mRNAnucleotide sequence to protein expression levels within each expressionlevel category (frequency is normalized to 1 within each calculatedscore category). 69% of the four experimentally observed expressioncategories are fit perfectly, and the remainder to their closestneighboring category. The highest and lowest expression levels are fitmost accurately. FIG. 6B shows the distribution of observed expressionlevel categories in the experimental dataset.

FIGS. 7A-G show the effect of varying N-terminal AU content in thepresence of (near-) constant other parameters. Four pairs of alleles ofttAST (50a-53b; G(i)) and five allele pairs of lmTIM (33a-37b; G(ii))were constructed in which the N-terminal composition was varied from 31%to 60% (FIG. 7E); while keeping the other five parameters near-constantin a range where they have little effect on the predicted expressionscore (FIGS. 7A-D, F).

FIGS. 8A-B show representative Quantitative Cysteine Reactivity (QCR)experiments for E. coli ribose-binding protein (ecRBP; SEQ ID NO:8) andStaphylococcal nuclease (SN; SEQ ID NO:7). FIG. 8A shows the SDS-PAGE oftime dependent modification of ecRBP variant L62C (SEQ ID NO:12) with 1mM IAM-biotin (left panel); unlabeled fractions were quantified bydensitometry and fit with a single exponential to obtain reaction rates(right panel) at different temperatures. FIG. 8B shows the labeling ofSN variant L36C (SEQ ID NO:11) with IAM-biotin (left panel); the(un)labeled forms migrated differently in the gel, enabling ratiometricquantification to obtain reaction rates (right panel) at differenttemperatures.

FIGS. 9A-B show an example of the EX1/EX2 limit. An illustrative test ofEX2 conditions for SN variants F34C (SEQ ID NO:10) (FIG. 9A) and L36C(SEQ ID NO:11) (FIG. 9B) at 38.3° C. The change in observed rateconstant for labeling of these protected cysteines is proportional tothe change in concentration of IAM-biotin (black: 3 mM; lighter blue:1.1 mM; darker blue: 0.3 mM). k_(label) at 3, 1, and 0.3 mM IAM-biotinfor Cys-34: 2.3×10⁻³ s⁻¹, 9.2×10⁻⁴ s⁻¹, and 2.8×10⁻⁴ s⁻¹ respectively;for Cys-36: 3.7×10⁻³ s⁻¹, 1.6×10⁻⁴ s⁻¹, and 4.8×10⁻⁴ s⁻¹ respectively.

FIGS. 10A-C show the determination of k_(int) in model compounds andunfolded SN. FIG. 10A shows the progress curves for the reaction of 80μM IAM-biotin with 800 μM reduced L-glutathione (GSH) at differenttemperatures in 25 mM MOPS, 100 mM KCl and pH 7.6. Pseudo-first orderrate constants (k_(int)) derived from these data: 6.2×10⁻⁴ (25° C.),1.6×10⁻⁴ (35° C.), 3.5×10⁻³ (45° C.), and 7.7×10⁻³ (55° C.) s⁻¹; secondorder rate constants (i.e. k=k_(int)/[GSH]) of 7.8×10⁻¹, 2.0, 4.4 and9.6 M⁻¹s⁻¹ respectively. FIG. 10B shows the Arrhenius plot of the secondorder rate constants for the bimolecular reaction of IAM-biotin and GSH.FIG. 10C shows the representative QCR curves at 50° C. for unfolded SNvariants L36C (purple; k_(int)=3×10⁻³ s⁻¹) and F34C (black;k_(int)=2×10⁻³ s⁻¹) at 438 μM IAM-biotin, ˜0.1 μM protien, 25 mM MOPS,100 mM KCl and pH 7.6.

FIGS. 11A-C show the structural models for the substituted sites. FIG.11A shows the cysteine substitution sites in the hydrophobic core of SN(pdb code 1SNC), FIG. 11B shows the hydrophobic core of ecRBP (pdb code2DRI) and FIG. 11C shows the hydrophobic core of E. coli maltose-bindingprotein (ecMBP; pdb code 1ANF).

FIG. 12 shows the temperature range at which global unfolding freeenergies (ΔG_(U)) can be determined by quantitative cysteine reactivityas determined by three factors.

FIGS. 13A-B show the temperature dependence of ΔG_(U) determined by QCRfor SN variants F34C (purple) and L36C (black) (FIG. 13A), and ecRBPvariants L62C (purple) and A188C (SEQ ID NO:13) (black) (FIG. 13B).Solid lines indicate a fit to a Gibbs-Helmholtz profile (Eq. 18). Errorbars represent the error of three independent experiments at selecttemperatures.

FIGS. 14A-B show the ligand concentration dependence of ΔΔG_(U) forecRBP variants L62C (purple) at 48.9° C. and A188C (black) at 54.3° C.(FIG. 14A), and for ecMBP variants T157C (SEQ ID NO:14) (black) andS263C (SEQ ID NO:15) (purple) at 63.3° C. (FIG. 14B). The solid linesrepresent the fit of Equation 20 to the data to obtain K_(D) values.Error bars correspond to the propagated uncertainty of two combinedΔG_(U) measurements.

FIGS. 15A-C show the effect of ligands and substrate on SN stability.FIG. 15A shows the QCR experiments for SN variant L36C in the absence(black) and presence of 1 mM Ca2+ (purple) or 50 μM pdTp (orange). FIG.15B shows the dependence of ΔΔG_(U) on a 2:1 molar ratio of Ca²⁺ andpdTp for SN variants F34C (black) and L36C (purple) fit with Equation 20to obtain K_(D) values. FIG. 15C shows the QCR experiments for SNvariant L36C.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before any embodiments are described in detail, it is to be understoodthat the claims are not limited to the details of construction and thearrangement of components set forth in the following description orillustrated in the included drawings. Unless stated otherwise, allpatent and non-patent references and citations are incorporated byreference herein.

Optimization of mRNA for Protein Expression

In a general sense, the disclosure relates to methods that are useful inthe characterization of various biological structure/functionrelationships. For example, the disclosure provides a method foroptimizing an mRNA sequence for protein expression using a systematicanalysis based on regional characteristics and properties of isocodingnucleotide sequences. As described herein, the inventors have identifiedregional variation in nucleotide composition, RNA secondary structure,and codon usage biases in prokaryotic genomes. In all those genomes, thefirst and last portions in the ORFs were significantly richer in AUcontent and lower in secondary structure content than the middlesegment. Codon choices in the N-terminal encoding region also differsignificantly from the rest of the ORF. Furthermore, a complexinterrelationship may exist between codon choice, genomic nucleotidecomposition, and proteomic amino acid composition. Simulation of randomdrift in these genomes by stochastically varying isocodon choicesuggests that these features are maintained by positive selection ofgenomic nucleotide composition. Further, the method can be used for thedesign of synthetic genes with optimal protein expression levels for anyvariety of organism, particularly prokaryotic organisms.

As another example, the disclosure relates to a method of determiningprotein stability and/or ligand binding affinity that provides anapproach that includes introducing one or more mutations to a targetedregion of a protein. The inventors have found that methods incorporatingquantitative cysteine reactivity can be used to measure themacromolecular stability of a protein, or a protein-ligand complex,using very small amounts of protein material. These methods allow forminiaturized assays, including the miniaturization of existing assays,for determining protein stability in either the absence or presence of aligand.

The inventors have developed a computational algorithm (ORFOPT) thatenables the construction of synthetic genes and optimized mRNAs in whichregional AU composition, mRNA secondary structure, and codon choice arevaried systematically. The inventors have identified that previouslyunidentified structural considerations can contribute in a significantway to protein expression, and be used to determine protein expressionlevels. The algorithm includes a nonlinear scoring function that relatesexperimental protein expression levels to the synthetic mRNA sequences.Using the algorithm, certain features in ORFs can be used to determineprotein expression levels, and can enable prediction of expressionlevels of naturally occuring ORFs.

Thus, in an aspect, the disclosure provides a method of optimizing anmRNA sequence for protein expression. While a number of environmentalfactors can affect protein expression levels the method for optimizingdescribed herein encompasses embodiments that relate to nucleotidesequence and structure (e.g., primary and secondary structure).Accordingly, some embodiments include analysis and potentialmodification of factors including, for example, AU (or AT) content inthe nucleotide sequence encoding a region that encompasses the N- and/orC-termini, degree of secondary structure in the nucleotide sequenceencoding a region that encompasses the N- and/or C-termini, degree ofsecondary structure in the nucleotide sequence in a region that isbetween the portions encoding the N- and/or C-termini, andhigh-frequency codon usage.

In embodiments, the disclosure provides a method of optimizing an mRNAsequence for protein expression, comprising determining an AUcomposition of a first percentage in a last portion of a protein codingregion of the mRNA sequence; and altering the AU composition of the lastportion of the protein coding region of the selected mRNA sequencewithout changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that the AUcomposition of the last portion of the coding region in the optimizedmRNA sequence is a second percentage.

In some embodiments, the disclosure provides a method for analyzing anexisting mRNA sequence (for example, a naturally occurring mRNA sequenceor a synthetic mRNA sequence) to determine the expected proteinexpression level. Such embodiments comprise determining an AUcomposition of a first percentage in a last portion of a protein codingregion of the mRNA sequence and, based on the first percentage relativeto an optimized percentage, predict the protein expression level.Further embodiments of this method include optimizing the mRNA sequencethat has been analyzed, and comprise altering the AU composition of thelast portion of the protein coding region of the selected mRNA sequencewithout changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that the AUcomposition of the last portion of the coding region in the optimizedmRNA sequence is a second percentage, wherein the second percentage ispredicted to increase protein expression level relative to the firstpercentage.

In any of the above embodiments, the method can comprises determiningone or more of the following mRNA characteristics of a selected mRNAsequence: AU composition of the N-terminal coding region of the mRNAsequence; the secondary structure of the N-terminal and/or C-terminalcoding region(s) of the mRNA sequence; the secondary structure and/or AUcomposition of the mRNA middle segment secondary structure; or codonusage bias. Thus, some embodiments provide a method comprisingdetermining an AU composition of a first percentage in a last portion ofa protein coding region of the mRNA sequence; and altering the AUcomposition of the last portion of the protein coding region of theselected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence,such that the AU composition of the last portion of the coding region inthe optimized mRNA sequence is a second percentage; and furthercomprising at least one of

-   -   (a) altering the AU composition of a first portion of the coding        region of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the        encoded amino acid sequence, such that the AU composition of the        first portion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA        sequence is a third percentage;    -   (b) altering the AU composition of a middle portion of the        selected mRNA sequence, wherein the middle portion is between        the first portion and the last portion of the coding region,        such that the AU composition of the middle region of the        optimized mRNA sequence is a fourth percentage;    -   (c) altering the sequence of a first portion of the coding        region of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the        encoded amino acid sequence, such that the first portion of the        coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to        have less secondary structure relative to the first portion of        the coding region of the selected mRNA sequence;    -   (d) altering the sequence of a last portion of the coding region        of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino        acid sequence, such that the last portion of the coding region        of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to have less        secondary structure relative to the portion of the coding region        of the selected mRNA sequence;    -   (e) altering the sequence of a middle portion of the coding        region of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the        encoded amino acid sequence, such that the middle portion of the        coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to        have less secondary structure relative to the portion of the        coding region of the selected mRNA sequence; or    -   (f) altering the sequence of the coding region of the selected        mRNA sequence such that at least one codon is replaced with a        codon that is used at higher frequency in a selected host cell.

Certain embodiments provide for any combination of the above-mentionedaltering processes, such that the method can include one, two, three,four, or five additional alterations to the mRNA sequence. Accordingly,embodiments provide for a combination of alterations to the mRNAsequence that can include changes to the AU composition in the first(N-terminal) and last (C-terminal) coding regions or optionally theentirety of the mRNA sequence; changes to the AU composition and changesthat decrease secondary structure in one or more regions (e.g., first,last, or middle portions); changes to the AU composition and changesfrom a native codon to a higher frequency codon; or changes thatdecrease secondary structure in one or more regions and changes from anative codon to a higher frequency codon; and the like.

In certain embodiments of this aspect, the method further comprisesoptimizing at least one of characteristics (a) and (b) to produce anoptimized mRNA sequence; or the method further comprises optimizing atleast one of characteristics (a) through (c) to produce an optimizedmRNA sequence; or the method further comprises optimizing at least oneof characteristics (a) through (d) to produce an optimized rnRNAsequence; or the method further comprises optimizing at least one ofcharacteristics (a) through (e) to produce an optimized mRNA sequence;or the method further comprises optimizing at least one ofcharacteristics (a) through (f) to produce an optimized mRNA sequence.Any combination or permutation of characteristics (a) through (f) can beemployed in various embodiments of the methods described herein.

In certain embodiments, the method further comprises optimizingcharacteristic (a) of a selected mRNA sequence to produce an optimizedmRNA sequence. In embodiments, the method comprises determining at leastcharacteristic (a) of a selected mRNA sequence. Some embodiments providea method that comprises determining at least characteristics (a) and (b)of a selected mRNA sequence. In embodiments, the method comprisesdetermining at least characteristics (a) through (c) of a selected mRNAsequence. In certain embodiments, the method comprises determining atleast characteristics (a) through (d) of a selected mRNA sequence. Incertain embodiments, the method comprises determining at leastcharacteristics (a) through (e) of a selected mRNA sequence. Someembodiments provide a method comprising determining at leastcharacteristics (a) through (f) of a selected mRNA sequence.

Any mRNA sequence that encodes a desired amino acid sequence (e.g.,protein, polypeptide, functional fragments thereof, etc.) can be used inthe methods described herein. In some embodiments, the mRNA is selectedfor optimization and expression in a host cell, such as a recombinantcell or a native cell. Embodiments provide for mRNA sequence selectionbased on an analysis using any of the methods described herein, whereinthe method predicts that the mRNA will express less protein than desiredfor a particular purpose (e.g., cell based assays, proteinoverexpression, etc.). In some embodiments the mRNA is selected forprotein overexpression in a prokaryotic cell and subsequentpurification.

As used herein, “altering” a selected mRNA sequence comprises changingone or more nucleotides in the mRNA molecule such as, for example, anucleotide in the coding region to another nucleotide by any suitabletechnique. In certain embodiments, a native nucleotide is changed to anaturally occurring nucleotide such as, for example, one of the threeother common nucleotides in DNA or RNA (thymine, uracil, cytosine,guanine, adenine). As a non-limiting example, an adenine (A) may bechanged to a guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine or uracil (T or U),depending on RNA/DNA. Similarly; a T/U may be changed to an A, G, or C;a G may be changed to an A, C, or T/U; and/or a C may be changed to anA, U, or G. Such alteration may be made to a DNA sequence that encodes aselected mRNA sequence or to the mRNA molecule itself. Further, suchalteration may be made by any method known in the art. Methods caninclude, but are not limited to, any method of site-directed mutagenesis(Branigan & Wilkinson, Nat. Rev. Cell. Biol. 3:964-70 (2002)) andsynthetic gene and genome assembly (Mueller et al., Chem. Biol.16:337-47 (2009). Certain non-limiting methods of altering nucleic acidsequences are described, e.g., in Cox et al., Protein Science 16:379-390(2007).

As used in some embodiments herein, an mRNA sequence is “predicted” whena method of calculating improved protein expression is used to generateit. In some embodiments, the method of calculating improved proteinexpression can include any one or combination of elements discussedherein and can optionally be an automated method such as, for example, amethod comprising an algorithm or computer program (e.g., the ORFOPTprograrh). In some embodiments the protein expression level can be“predicted” based on mRNA sequence, either naturally-occurring orsynthetic mRNA, using any of the methods described herein.

As used herein, “optimizing” means changing a characteristic of aselected mRNA sequence such that the changed, or optimized, mRNAsequence is predicted to express at a higher level in a selected hostcell than the original, selected mRNA sequence. Optimizing does notrequire that the characteristic be changed such that the optimized mRNAsequence is predicted to express at the highest possible level in aselected host cell. Rather, a characteristic is considered to beoptimized when the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to express at ahigher level than the original, selected mRNA sequence.

Similarly, an “optimized mRNA sequence” is predicted to express at ahigher level in a selected host cell than the original mRNA sequenceupon which the optimized mRNA sequence is based. An optimized mRNAsequence need not be predicted to express at the highest possible levelin the selected host cell.

As used herein, “secondary structure” is the general three-dimensionalform of local segments of biopolymers such as proteins and nucleic acids(DNA/RNA). Secondary structure is defined by the hydrogen bonds of thebiopolymer, as observed in an atomic-resolution structure. In nucleicacids, the secondary structure is defined by the hydrogen bondingbetween the nitrogenous bases. The secondary structure of a nucleic acidmolecule refers to the basepairing interactions within a single moleculeor set of interacting molecules. The secondary structure of biologicalRNAs can be uniquely decomposed into stems and loops. Frequently theseelements, or combinations thereof, can be further classified, forexample, tetraloops, pseudoknots and stem-loops.

As used herein, “less secondary structure” or “reduced secondarystructure” means that the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to haveless secondary structure than the selected mRNA sequence. In certainembodiments, reducing secondary structure comprises altering the mRNAsequence to reduce base-pairing between different portions of the mRNAsequence. The presence of secondary structure can be determined, incertain embodiments, by any suitable RNA folding programs known in theart. See, e.g., Zuker and Stiegler, Nucleic Acids Res., 9:133-148(1981). Accordingly, in various embodiments the amount of secondarystructure can be calculated based on any number of factors that areknown to influence hydrogen bonding interactions including, for example,the number, length, or frequency pattern of inverted repeat motifs inthe sequence. In some embodiments, the secondary structure can bedetermined based on an inverted repeat score, which can optionally be anautomated calculation that comprises an algorithm or computer programsuch as, for example, the ORFOPT program.

As used herein, “hydrophobic core” refers to a structure of an aminoacid sequence (e.g., a protein) in which the side chains of hydrophobicamino acids are buried from water. In some embodiments, the hydrophobiccore refers to a hydrophobic region of an amino acid sequence, such as aprotein, wherein the region can be an area of local hydrophobicity nearthe protein surface. In some embodiments, the hydrophobic core refers tothe interior region of a protein.

In certain embodiments, the protein product of an optimized mRNAsequence is expressed at higher levels than the protein product of thenon-optimized (e.g., native) mRNA sequence in the same host cell, ornative cell or either. Expression of the protein product of an optimizedmRNA sequence at “higher levels” than the non-optimized mRNA sequenceincludes any measurable increase in the amount of protein product. Insome embodiments the optimized mRNA sequence is expressed at a levelthat is at least 1.01-fold, 1.05-fold, 1.1-fold, 1.2-fold, 1.3-fold,1.4-fold, 1.5-fold, 1.6-fold, 1.7-fold, 1.8-fold, 1.9-fold, 2-fold,3-fold, 5-fold, or at least 10-fold greater than the protein product ofa selected mRNA sequence. In some embodiments, when the protein productof a selected mRNA is not detectably expressed in a host cell, theprotein product of an optimized mRNA is expressed at detectable levels.

Certain exemplary host cells include, but are not limited to,prokaryotes, including eubacteria, e.g., E. coli, and archeabacteria.

mRNA N-Terminal AU Composition

Certain embodiments provide methods of optimizing a selected mRNAsequence comprising altering the selected mRNA sequence such that the AUcomposition in a first portion of the coding region is a chosenpercentage (such as, for example, 30%). Suitably, the selected mRNAsequence is altered without changing the encoded amino acid sequence. Incertain embodiments, the selected mRNA sequence is altered such that oneor more amino acids are changed in the encoded amino acid sequence. Insome embodiments, the changes in amino acids that are introduced by thealtered mRNA have no substantial effect on protein function. In variousembodiments, the first portion ranges between about the first 30 toabout the first 100 nucleotides, (e.g., the first 30 bases, the first 35bases, the first 40 bases, the first 45 bases, the first 50 bases, thefirst 60 bases, or the first 75 bases, etc.). As used herein, “the first45 bases of a coding region,” for example, are counted starting with thefirst nucleotide of the first codon of the coding region of the mRNAsequence. Typically, the first codon is “ATG,” in which case the firstnucleotide is “A” such that the first 45 bases includes the “A” plus thenext 44 bases, or nucleotides, of the coding region of the mRNAsequence.

mRNA C-Terminal AU Composition

In certain embodiments, methods of optimizing a selected mRNA sequencecomprising altering the selected mRNA sequence such that the AUcomposition in the last 30 to 75 bases of the coding region is a chosenpercentage (such as, for example, 30%) are provided. In certainembodiments, the selected mRNA sequence is altered without changing theencoded amino acid sequence. In certain embodiments, the last portionranges between about the last 30 to the last 75 nucleotides, (e.g., thelast 30 bases, the last 35 bases, the last 40 bases, the last 45 bases,the last 50 bases, the last 60 bases, or the last 75 bases, etc.). Asused herein, “the last 45 bases of a coding region,” for example, arecounted starting with the last nucleotide of the stop codon of thecoding region of the mRNA sequence. The last 45 bases are therefore thestop codon plus the previous 42 bases, or nucleotides, of the codingregion of the mRNA sequence. Stop codons are known in the art and can bedetermined by one of skill based on the reading frame of the mRNA. Insome embodiments, the stop codon can be TAG, TAA, or TGA.

mRNA Middle AU Composition

In certain embodiments, methods of optimizing a selected mRNA sequencecomprising altering the selected mRNA sequence such that the AUcomposition in the middle of the coding region is a chosen percentageare provided. In certain embodiments, the middle of the coding region isthe region between the first 30-75 bases and the last 30-75 bases. Invarious embodiments, the middle of the coding region is the regionbetween the first 75 bases and the last 75 bases, the region between thefirst 60 bases and the last 60 bases, the region between the first 50bases and the last 50 bases, the region between the first 45 bases andthe last 45 bases, the region between the first 40 bases and the last 40bases, the region between the first 35 bases and the last 35 bases, orthe region between the first 30 bases and the last 30 bases. In certainembodiments, the selected mRNA sequence is altered without changing theencoded amino acid sequence. In certain embodiments, the selected mRNAsequence is altered such that one or more amino acids are changed in theencoded amino acid sequence.

mRNA N-Terminal Secondary Structure

In certain embodiments, methods of optimizing a selected mRNA sequencecomprising altering the sequence of a first portion of the coding regionof the selected mRNA sequence, such that the first portion of the codingregion of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to have reducedsecondary structure. In certain embodiments, the selected mRNA sequenceis altered without changing the encoded amino acid sequence. In certainembodiments, the selected mRNA sequence is altered such that one or moreamino acids in the encoded amino acid sequence are changed. In variousembodiments, the first portion is the first 20 bases, the first 35bases, the first 50 bases, the first 75 bases, the first 100 bases, orthe first 200 bases.

mRNA C-Terminal Secondary Structure

In certain embodiments, methods of optimizing a selected mRNA sequencecomprising altering the sequence of a last portion of the coding regionof the selected mRNA sequence, such that the last portion of the codingregion of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to have lesssecondary structure. In certain embodiments, the selected mRNA sequenceis altered without changing the encoded amino acid sequence. In certainembodiments, the selected mRNA sequence is altered such that one or moreamino acids in the encoded amino acid sequence are changed. In variousembodiments, the last portion is the last 20 bases, the last 35 bases,the last 50 bases, the last 75 bases, the last 100 bases, or the last200 bases.

mRNA Middle Secondary Structure

In certain embodiments, methods of optimizing a selected mRNA sequencecomprising altering the sequence of a middle portion of the codingregion of the selected mRNA sequence, such that the middle portion ofthe coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to haveless secondary structure. In certain embodiments, selected mRNA sequenceis altered without changing the encoded amino acid sequence. In certainembodiments, the selected mRNA sequence is altered such that one or moreamino acids in the encoded amino acid sequence are changed. In variousembodiments, the middle portion of the coding region is the regionbetween the first 75 bases and the last 75 bases, the region between thefirst 60 bases and the last 60 bases, the region between the first 50bases and the last 50 bases, the region between the first 45 bases andthe last 45 bases, the region between the first 40 bases and the last 40bases, the region between the first 35 bases and the last 35 bases, orthe region between the first 30 bases and the last 30 bases.

Codon Usage Bias

In certain embodiments, methods of optimizing a selected mRNA sequencecomprising altering the sequence of the coding region of the selectedmRNA sequence such that at least one codon is replaced with a codon thatis used at higher frequency in a selected host cell are provided. Incertain embodiments, when an amino acid is encoded by at least twocodons, the codons are ranked according to their usage in the selectedhost cell. Preferred codons for organisms including mammals (e.g.,humans) and plants are known to the art (e.g., Wada et al., Nucl. AcidsRes., 18:2367 (1990); Murray et al., Nucl. Acids Res., 17:477 (1989)).

As an illustrative example, if a selected host cell uses the codon CGUfor arginine 20% of the time, the codon CGC for arginine 27% of thetime, the codon CGA for arginine 35% of the time, and the codon CGG forarginine 18% of the time, the codons are ranked CGA>CGC>CGU>CGG. Incertain embodiments, then, a selected mRNA may be optimized, forexample, by changing a CGG codon to a CGC, CGU or CGA codon, by changinga CGU codon to a CGC or CGA codon, etc. That is, in certain embodiments,a selected mRNA may be optimized by changing at least one codon to acodon that is ranked higher for the selected host cell. The codon neednot be changed to the highest ranked codon for the selected host cell.

In an aspect the disclosure provides a computer readable storage mediumcomprising a set of instructions that are executable by a microprocessorto perform the function of optimizing an mRNA sequence for proteinexpression that comprises determining an AU composition of a firstpercentage in a last portion of a protein coding region of the mRNAsequence; and altering the AU composition of the last portion of theprotein coding region of the selected mRNA sequence without changing theencoded amino acid sequence, such that the AU composition of the lastportion of the coding region in the optimized mRNA sequence is a secondpercentage.

Further embodiments of this aspect provide for a set of instructions ona computer readable storage medium that further include at least one of:

-   -   altering the AU composition of a first portion of the coding        region of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the        encoded amino acid sequence, such that the AU composition of the        first portion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA        sequence is a third percentage;    -   altering the AU composition of a middle portion of the selected        mRNA sequence, wherein the middle portion is between the first        portion and the last portion of the coding region, such that the        AU composition of the middle region of the optimized mRNA        sequence is a fourth percentage;    -   altering the sequence of a first portion of the coding region of        the selected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino        acid sequence, such that the first portion of the coding region        of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to have less        secondary structure relative to the first portion of the coding        region of the selected mRNA sequence;    -   altering the sequence of a last portion of the coding region of        the selected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino        acid sequence, such that the last portion of the coding region        of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to have less        secondary structure relative to the portion of the coding region        of the selected mRNA sequence;    -   altering the sequence of a middle portion of the coding region        of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino        acid sequence, such that the middle portion of the coding region        of the optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to have less        secondary structure relative to the portion of the coding region        of the selected mRNA sequence; or    -   altering the sequence of the coding region of the selected mRNA        sequence such that at least one codon is replaced with a codon        that is used at higher frequency in a selected host cell.

Thus, in some embodiments, certain portions of the method areimplemented on a computer system. Suitable computer systems are wellknown in the art and may include, in certain embodiments, an inputdevice, an output device, a storage medium, and/or a processor. Certainexemplary input devices include, but are not limited to, a keyboard, acomputer mouse, a touch screen, and the like. Certain exemplary outputdevices include, but are not limited to, a cathode-ray tube (CRT)computer monitor, a liquid-crystal display (LCD) computer monitor, andthe like. Certain exemplary storage media include, but are not limitedto, various types of memory such as a hard disk, RAM, flash memory, andother magnetic, optical, physical, or electronic memory devices. Aprocessor may be any typical computer processor for performingcalculations and directing other functions for performing input, output,calculation, and display of data in the disclosed calculator. Thestorage media may comprise a set of instructions and/or data storedthereon that can be executed or otherwise manipulated by a microprocessor. Such data may include, but is not limited to, image data andnumerical data.

In certain embodiments, certain portions of the method are implementedon a web page. In certain embodiments, certain portions of the methodare implemented as a locally-controlled program on a personal computer.In certain embodiments, certain portions of the method may beimplemented on a personal digital assistant (PDA), cell phone, or otherhand-held electronic device.

Embodiments provide that portions of the methods that may be implementedon a computer and/or web page include, but are not limited to, (a)determining the AU composition of a last portion of a selected mRNAsequence; (b) optimizing the selected mRNA sequence such that the AUcomposition in the last portion is a chosen percentage, either withoutchanging the encoded amino acid sequence, or including certain changesin the encoded amino acid sequence; (c) determining the AU compositionof a first portion of a selected mRNA sequence; (d) optimizing theselected mRNA sequence such that the AU composition in the first portionis a chosen percentage, either without changing the encoded amino acidsequence, or including certain changes in the encoded amino acidsequence; (e) determining the secondary structure of a first portion ofa selected mRNA sequence; (f) optimizing the first portion of theselected mRNA sequence to reduce the amount of secondary structure,either without changing the encoded amino acid sequence, or includingcertain changes in the encoded amino acid sequence; (g) determining thesecondary structure of a last portion of a selected mRNA sequence; (h)optimizing the last portion of the selected mRNA sequence to reduce theamount of secondary structure, either without changing the encoded aminoacid sequence, or including certain changes in the encoded amino acidsequence; (i) determining the codon usage of a selected host cell; and(j) optimizing the codon usage of a selected mRNA sequence.

Picomole-Scale Characterization of Protein Stability and Function

In another broad sense the disclosure relates to a method, calledquantitative cysteine reactivity (QCR), in which protein stability isdetermined by monitoring the reactivity of cysteine residues buried inthe hydrophobic core of proteins. This approach has the advantage overmore traditional methods for measuring protein stability in that it usesonly picomoles (nanograms) of protein, uses simple instrumentationaccessible to any lab, is higher throughput, and can providesite-specific thermodynamic information. QCR can be used to determineapparent protein stabilities rapidly and accurately, constructGibbs-Helmholtz stability profiles, measure ligand binding over a largerange of ligand concentrations and affinities, and infer enzymaticactivity, in certain embodiments, without the need for developing akinetic assay.

Thus, in an aspect the disclosure provides a method of determiningstability of a protein comprising mutating a selected amino acid residueof the protein to a cysteine to form a mutant protein, wherein theselected residue is predicted to be located in a hydrophobic core of theprotein; incubating the mutant protein with a thiol-reactive probe underconditions that allow for thiol-reactive probe binding; and detecting aprobe-labeled mutant protein. In certain embodiments, QCR can be used todetermine protein stability using picomole quantities of material(nanograms for an average-sized protein), gel electrophoresis equipment,and gel analysis software. Furthermore, QCR assesses stability at lowprotein concentrations, which, in certain embodiments, minimizesaggregation, which can be a problem in stability measurements made byless sensitive methods. QCR exploits the fundamental relationshipbetween protein flexibility and stability by monitoring the differentialreactivity of internal chemical groups in the native and unfolded state.Unlike certain previous methods, such as hydrogen exchange (HX), QCRobservations can be obtained within the global unfolding window ofobservation (GUWO; ˜10-15° C. of T_(m)), where, in certain embodiments,global unfolding events dominate and the reported energetics correspondsto global unfolding free energies.

QCR can be used to investigate many aspects of biological function thatare linked to protein stability. For instance, in certain embodiments,protein-ligand interactions can be identified and quantified through thefundamental thermodynamic linkage relationships between ligand bindingand protein stability. This analysis can be used, in certainembodiments, to infer enzymatic activity by monitoring changes instability in the presence of substrate, product (produced in the courseof the reaction), and/or inhibitors. The ability to obtain thermodynamicmeasurements with small amounts of material and availableinstrumentation enables application and adaptation of the QCR techniquefor protein characterization, including protein engineering experimentsand functional genomic studies that use the thermodynamiccharacterization of a large number of variants.

In embodiments, methods of determining the stability of a protein areprovided that comprise, mutating a selected amino acid residue of theprotein to a cysteine to form a mutant protein, wherein the selectedresidue is predicted to be located in a hydrophobic core of the protein;incubating the mutant protein with a thiol-reactive probe in thepresence of the ligand; and detecting a probe-labeled mutant proteinformed in the presence of the ligand.

In certain embodiments, methods of measuring the affinity of a ligandfor a target protein are provided. Such methods comprise, in certainembodiments, (a) mutating a selected residue of a target protein to acysteine, wherein the selected residue is predicted to be located in thehydrophobic core of the target protein; (b) incubating the mutant targetprotein with a thiol-reactive probe in the presence and absence of theligand; and (c) detecting a probe-labeled mutant target protein.

“Mutating” a selected residue of a target protein to a cysteine, as usedherein, means changing a non-cysteine residue in the target protein to acysteine. In certain embodiments, changing the non-cysteine residue to acysteine comprises altering the mRNA sequence that encodes the targetprotein to change a selected codon that does not encode a cysteine to acodon that does encode a cysteine. Such altering may be carried out byany method known in the art, including the methods discussed herein. Incertain embodiments, a DNA sequence that encodes the mRNA is mutated toalter the selected codon in the mRNA sequence.

A selected residue is predicted to be in the hydrophobic core of thetarget protein when static solvent-accessible surface area for theentire sidechain is less than ˜10%, as calculated from the structurecoordinates.

A “thiol-reactive probe,” as used herein, is a detectable moiety capableof reacting with a thiol (i.e., —SH) group and forming a bond betweenthe thiol-reactive probe and the thiol group. The bond can be covalentor non-covalent, and is suitably stable under the selected detectingconditions. A “detectable moiety” includes any moiety that is detectableas is, or which can be rendered detectable by subsequent reaction (i.e.,modification or conjugation). Certain exemplary detectable moietiesinclude, but are not limited to, dyes (e.g., visible dyes), labels(e.g., fluorescent labels), and particles (e.g., phosphorescent labels).Exemplary detectable moieties also include, but are not limited to,members of binding pairs, such as biotin, avidin, streptavidin,antigens, antibodies and antibody fragments, nucleic acids, nucleic acidbinding proteins, single-stranded nucleic acids and their complementsOne skilled in the art can modify a selected detectable moiety to makeit thiol-reactive, if needed. Various reagents and methods of modifyingdetectable moieties to be thiol reactive are commercially available,e.g., from Thermo Scientific.

Methods of detecting a probe-labeled mutant protein include any methodsin the art, such as separation of labeled and unlabeled mutant proteinby SDS-PAGE and detection of the separated proteins.

In certain embodiments, a probe-labeled mutant target protein isdetected at two or more time points. In certain embodiments, aprobe-labeled mutant target protein is detected at three or more, fouror more, five or more, six or more, seven or more, eight or more, nineor more, ten or more, fifteen or more, or twenty or more time points.

In certain embodiments, a method further comprises determining the rateat which probe-labeled mutant target protein is formed. One skilled inthe art can determine the rate using methods in the art, including, forexample, the methods described in the Examples below.

In certain embodiments, a method further comprises determining theaffinity of a ligand for a protein. In certain such embodiments, therate at which probe-labeled mutant target protein is formed isdetermined in the presence and absence of the ligand. One skilled in theart can determine the rate using methods in the art, including, forexample, the methods described in the Examples below. Further, oneskilled in the art can determine the affinity of the ligand for theprotein using methods known in the art, including, for example, themethods described in the Examples below.

The Examples below are merely illustrative of certain aspects andembodiments of the disclosure and do not limit the scope of the claims.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Optimization of Protein Expression in Prokaryotes

Definitions of Bioinformatic Measurements:

Regional nucleotide composition (ν) was defined as

$\begin{matrix}{v = \frac{N_{AT}}{L}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

where N_(AT) was the number of AT bases in a region length L.

RNA secondary structure was represented by a scoring function thatcaptures the degree of inverted repeats in a region, weighted by thebase-pairing character, and loop or bulge sizes. This score wascalculated by centering a recursive search of maximally-sized invertedrepeats within a maximum distance from a given nucleotide; duplexes wereallowed to contain bulges or gaps. The score for such a maximally-sizedinverted repeat was determined using previously published stem-loopbase-pairing energies [Freier, S. M., et al., (1986) “Improvedfree-energy parameters for predictions of RNA duplex stability.” ProcNatl Acad. Sci. USA, 83:9373-9377; Jaeger, J. A., et al., (1989)“Improved predictions of secondary structures for RNA.” Proc. Natl Acad.Sci. USA, 86:7706-7710], and assigned to each nucleotide encompassedwithin the calculated stem-loop. The regional secondary structure scoreS_(r) in a region was expressed as:

$\begin{matrix}{S_{r} = {\sum\limits_{begin}^{end}\; S_{i}}} & (2)\end{matrix}$

where S_(i) was the summed energy assigned to an individual base forparticipating in stem-loops (0 if not part of any secondary structure).

This algorithm was developed because it enables efficient updating ofsecondary structure scores by limiting the calculation to regions havingsequence that has been changed in a simulated annealing optimizationcalculation (see below). It does not attempt to calculate free energiesof RNA folding; rather, it provides a measure of the density of invertedrepeats in a region which in turn determines propensity for secondarystructure formation in that region.

Genomic codon tables were calculated as the frequency distribution of

$\begin{matrix}{f_{i} = \frac{n_{i}}{N}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

where f_(i) was the frequency of each individual codon (i=[1, . . . ,64]), n_(i) was the total count of codon i, and N the total number ofcodons in the genome. The normalized codon frequency for amino acid awas

$\begin{matrix}{{{}_{}^{}{}_{}^{}} = \frac{{}_{}^{}{}_{}^{}}{\; {\sum\limits_{i = 1}^{N_{a}}\; {{}_{}^{}{}_{}^{}}}}} & (4)\end{matrix}$

where ^(a)n_(i), was the count of codon i for a, and N_(a) was thenumber of degenerate codons for a. The codon adaptation index (CAI) forthe i^(th) codon in the a^(th) amino acid was defined as

$\begin{matrix}{{{}_{}^{}{}_{}^{}} = \frac{{}_{}^{}{}_{}^{}}{{}_{}^{}{}_{}^{}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

where ^(a)f_(max) was the highest normalized codon frequency in a. TheCAI for a region L was the geometric mean

$\begin{matrix}{C_{L} = \sqrt[L]{\prod\limits_{j = 1}^{L}{{}_{}^{}{}_{}^{}}}} & (6)\end{matrix}$

Arithmetic means and standard deviations for genomic CAIs werecalculated over C_(L) values determined for each ORF in a genome.

Genome Statistics

Annotated sequence files for 816 complete bacterial genomes weredownloaded from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)web resource (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/lproks.cgi). Customsoftware was developed to calculate nucleotide composition, RNAsecondary structure, and codon adaptation indices as defined above.Limits for the open reading frames were taken from the annotations inthe genome sequence files.

Computational Design of Synthetic ORF Sequences

A simulated annealing algorithm was used to minimize an objectivefunction capturing sequence features of interest within the availabledegrees of freedom in the i^(th) trial

E _(i)=Σ′^(ν) w _(r)ν_(r)+Σ^(e) wC _(o)+Σ^(s) w _(r) S _(r)   (7)

where ^(v)w_(r), ^(c)w, ^(s)w_(r) were the relative weights assignedregional nucleotide composition (r; N-terminal, middle, C-terminal), ORFcodon adaptation index (C), and regional RNA secondary structure(S_(r)), respectively. For minimizations in which only subsets ofparameters were optimized, the weights for the unconstrained parameterswere set to zero. Two types of minimizations were run: minimization ofthe absolute objective function, or achievement of a target value. Thelatter mode was used to construct a series of synthetic genes in whichone or more parameters was systematically varied. For target valueoptimization, the objective function was modified

Σw_(t)(p_(i)−ν_(t))²   (8)

where w_(t) represents the weights, p_(i) the parameters, and ν_(i) thetarget values. Sequence trial configurations were generated by randomlychoosing isocodons per trial. At the beginning of the simulation,degenerative codons for each amino acid were rank-ordered by theirfrequency and a cut-off was applied to remove low-frequency codons (thiswas the reason why synthetic ORFs with low CAI values were not sampled):on average, only two codons were changed per trial. Alleles weregenerated by maintaining a dynamic list of ˜100 sequences that wereusually 10 mutations different from the current best sequence and eachother. A dynamic cooling schedule was used to drive the simulatedannealing progress: to determine whether the i^(th) trial wasacceptable, ΔE_(i)=E_(i)−E_(i−1) was calculated and i was accepted ifΔE_(i)≦0 or p_(i)<e^(ΔE/T), where p_(i) was a random number (0,1) [0,1]and T (a control parameter, temperature). After 1,000 trials, theacceptance rate r was accessed, T was changed if r>0.25,T_(n+1)=0.8T_(n) or r<0.225,T₊₁=1.3 T_(n).

Final outcomes of such minimizations were dependent on the choice ofweights. Two approaches were used to address this problem. First,weights were assigned empirically in a successive number of trial anderror calculations. Second, a Boltzmann decision scheme was developedthat circumvents the issue of weights and enables parameters withdifferent numerical magnitudes to be combined. In this method, threeindependent Boltzmann decisions were used for each of the parameterclasses, respectively, resulting in a ‘vote’:ν_(i)=^(ν)β_(i)+^(c)β_(i)+^(s)β_(i), where β_(i) equals {1,0} andcaptures the outcome of a Boltzmann decision. Unanimous votes {ν₁=3}were always accepted; majority votes {ν_(i)=2} were accepted half thetime, and minority rule {ν_(i)=1} were accepted only if the overallacceptance rate had dropped below a threshold value, typically 5%.Between two to 20 runs were executed in parallel on a Beowulf clusterand merged to construct the final set of alleles. A run took 1-3 hours,depending on the size of the gene and optimization condition parameters.All synthetic ORFs were optimized within the context of the invariant 5′and 3′ control regions. The resulting sequences were fed into theautomated gene assembly pipeline, which assigned PCR schemes and therequisite oligonucleotide sequences (see below).

Example 2 Statistical Analysis of Bacterial Open Reading Frames (ORFs)

Regional nucleotide composition, mRNA secondary structure, and codonchoice were analyzed in the 2.5×10⁶ ORFs of 816 fully sequencedbacterial genomes that span genomic AT contents ranging from 25% to 83%.Computational algorithms and definitions of the statistical measureswere described in Example 1. The AT composition of the analyzed genomesis shown in FIG. 1. The mean AU content of the first and last regions(including 35 bases) was significantly higher than the correspondingmiddle portion (FIG. 1A). Of the two terminal regions, the 5′ end tendedto have a higher AU bias than the 3′ end. The variance of the nucleotidecomposition was also much higher at the two ends than the middle (FIG.1B).

The mRNA secondary structure content also showed significant regionaldifferences, with the two ends having lower mean structure content andhigher variances than the middle. See FIGS. 1C and 1D. As for the AUcontent, the structure in the 5′ segment was stronger than the 3′. Thetrends in these two sequence features were present regardless of genomicnucleotide composition, but with GC-rich genomes exhibiting muchstronger signals than AT-rich genomes. Canonical ORFs thereforecontained sequences that had above-average AU content and low secondarystructure in their N- and C-terminal 35-nucleotide segments. The higherstatistical variances of these parameters at one or both terminalregions relative to that observed in the middle segment suggested thatsome aspect of control might be encoded there: an increased level ofvariance in a parameter indicated that genes differ from one another inthis respect as would be expected for information that contained aregulatory function.

Codon choices in a region can be quantified as the CAI (Sharp and Li,(1987)), which varies from 0 to 1, reflecting choice of low- andhigh-frequency codons respectively, with codon frequencies calculatedover all the ORFs for each genome individually (Equations 3-6). Whereasthe statistical parameters of the other two features show eitherindependence of or near-monotonic dependence on genomic nucleotidecomposition, the means and variances of CAI values averaged over agenome show a considerably more complex, but well-defined pattern (FIG.1E), precluding identification of clear canonical rules governing codonbias by this approach. In addition to the overall clear non-lineardependence on nucleotide composition, the CAI pattern also showed someregional variation. At genomic AT contents below ˜50%, the N-terminalCAI tended to be significantly lower than either that observed in themiddle or C-terminal segments, which were indistinguishable from oneanother. The variance of the N-terminal CAI values were always higherthan that of the other two regions (FIG. 1F).

Canonical ORFs therefore contained sequences that had above-average AUcontent and low secondary structure in their N- and C-terminal segments.The higher statistical variances of these parameters at one or bothterminal regions relative to that observed in the middle segmentsuggested that some aspect of control might be encoded there: anincreased level of variance in a parameter indicated that genes differfrom one another in this respect as would be expected for informationthat contained a regulatory function.

Parameterization of a Function that Predicts Expression Levels from ORFSequence

A function was devised in which an expression score was given as a sumof a series of thresholds applied to the composition, structure, andcodon usage values of a sequence

E=τ _(v)(N)+τ_(v)(C)+τ_(c)(ORF)+τ_(s)(N)+τ_(s)(middle)+τ_(s)(C)   (9)

where τ_(v), τ_(c), τ_(s) were regional thresholds of nucleotidecomposition, CAI, and structure, respectively.

A given threshold was the sum of two sigmoids

$\begin{matrix}{\tau = {{W_{p}\frac{1}{1 + ^{{- 3}\frac{x - \mu_{p}}{\sigma_{p}}}}} + {W_{r}\frac{1}{1 + ^{{- 3}\frac{x - \mu_{r}}{\sigma_{r}}}}}}} & (10)\end{matrix}$

where p and r denoted parameters for penalty and reward phases,respectively, W, weight, μ midpoint, σ sigmoidicity of each curve, and xthe value of the parameter. The final value of the scoring function wasthe sum of all six components, and scoring function values were assignedto expression-level categories to the following mapping: ≦−100→0 (noexpression), [−100,0]→1 (weak expression), [0,100]→2 (mediumexpression), >100→3 (high expression). Parameters were fit as aminimization of the sum of the absolute differences between observed andcalculated expression categories, using a simulated annealing algorithm.The expression function was fit using different N- and C-terminalregional sizes, and with 35 base regions particularly exemplified.

Although the general features of the functions were relatively stable,detailed values varied according to experimental sample size and chosenregion length; precise details for secondary structure contributionswere particularly unstable and were therefore likely to change in futureiterations.

Example 3 Multifactorial Determinants of Protein Expression inProkaryotic Coding Regions

Oligonucleotide Synthesis and Synthetic Gene Assembly

Full-length genes (0.65-1.40 kb) encoding a synthetic ORF flanked by 5′(122 bp) and 3′ (103 bp) regulatory regions were assembled fromoligonucleotides (80-100 bases) synthesized in-house (MerMade 192 DNASynthesizer (BioAutomation) (with a custom reaction protocol in whichdeblocking, coupling, and capping steps were performed twice to obtainhigh-quality product that needed no gel purification) using a robustautomated PCR-mediated gene assembly procedure (Cox et al., ProteinScience 16:379-390 (2007)). Full-length products were verified byagarose gel electrophoresis. The full-length PCR products were verifiedby agarose gel electrophoresis and reamplified with constantbiotinylated flanking primers to provide some protection againstendogenous exonuclease activity in the subsequent in vitro coupledtranscription and translation reaction. To construct synthetic openreading frames, oligonucleotides of length 80-100 mer were chemicallysynthesized and assembled in a PCR-dependent manner.

Synthesis Reagents

Oligonucleotides were chemically synthesized on a MerMade 192 DNAsynthesizer (BioAutomation Corp., MM-192) using standard phosphoramiditechemistries (Caruthers et al., (1987); Caruthers et al., (1983)).Controlled-pore glass (CPG) columns were placed into the synthesismanifold as indicated by the software and were sealed into the manifoldwith a rubber mallet. Phosphoramidites were solubilized to aconcentration of 1 g per 20 mL directly before use. Reagents, partnumbers, and vendor information are summarized in Table 1.

TABLE 1 List of reagents and consumables for synthesis ofoligonucleotides used to construct synthetic genes Reagent Part numberSource Description Deblock BIO830 EMD dichloroacetic acid (3%) inBiosciences dichloromethane Cap A BIO221 EMD 2,6-lutidine (10%), aceticanhydride Biosciences (10%) in THF Cap B BIO345 EMD methylimidazole(16%) in THF Biosciences Oxidizer BIO420 EMD 0.02M iodine in THF (70%),pyridine Biosciences (20%), water (10%) Activator BIO152 EMD 0.25M5-(ethylthio)-1H-tetrazole in Biosciences acetonitrile Acetonitrile(wash) AX0151 EMD acetonitrile, anhydrous Biosciences Acetonitrile(diluent) 40-4050-50 Glen Research acetonitrile, anhydrous dAphosphoramidite 10-1000 Glen Research dA-CE phosphoramidite dCphosphoramidite 10-1015 Glen Research Ac-dC-CE phosphoramidite dGphosphoramidite 10-1029 Glen Research dmf-dG-CE phosphoramidite dTphosphoramidite 10-1030 Glen Research dT-CE phosphoramidite dA CPGcolumn SCG1-1000-5 Biosearch 5′-DMT-dA(Bz)-Suc, 1000 Å, 50 nmol dC CPGcolumn SCG1-1100A-5 Biosearch 5′-DMT-dC(Ac)-Suc, 1000 Å, 50 nmol dG CPGcolumn SCG1-1200F-5 Biosearch 5′-DMT-dG(dmf)-Suc, 1000 Å, 50 nmol dT CPGcolumn SCG1-1300-5 Biosearch 5′-DMT-dT-Suc, 1000 Å, 50 nmol Water trapsTP-(gram ChemAssist Molecular trap pack amount)

Synthesis Protocol

Prior to the start of synthesis, the CPG columns were rinsed twice withsynthesis grade anhydrous acetonitrile, capped twice with cappingreagents, and again washed twice with acetonitrile. Synthesis thenproceeded with the steps of deblocking (twice), washing (twice),coupling (twice), washing, capping, washing, oxidation, washing, anothercapping, and washing (twice) in sequential order. At the completion ofsynthesis, the columns were incubated with deblock three times andwashed three times. During all chemical based reaction steps(deblocking, coupling, capping and oxidation), two short vacuum pulseswere applied to the columns approximately at 15 and 30 seconds reactiontime. This technique pulled ‘new’ reagent placed on top of the columninto the synthesis resin. General overview of reaction order, reagentvolume, and reaction times are provided in Tables 2-4.

TABLE 2 Table of pre-synthesis reaction sequence Step Volume Incubationtime (s) Vac. Pulse Wash 250 μL acetonitrile 0 N/A Wash 250 μLacetonitrile 0 N/A Capping  60 μL cap A reagent 45 Two  60 μL cap Breagent Capping  60 μL cap A reagent 45 Two  60 μL cap B reagent Wash250 μL acetonitrile 0 N/A Wash 250 μL acetonitrile 0 N/A

TABLE 3 Table of synthesis reaction sequence, per monomer Step VolumeIncubation time (s) Vac. Pulse Deblock 120 μL deblock 50 Two Deblock 120μL deblock 50 Two Wash 250 μL acetonitrile 0 N/A Wash 250 μLacetonitrile 0 N/A Couple  60 μL phosphoramidite 75 Two  80 μL activatorCouple  60 μL phosphoramidite 75 Two  80 μL activator Wash 250 μLacetonitrile 0 N/A Capping  60 μL cap A reagent 45 Two  60 μL cap Breagent Wash 250 μL acetonitrile 0 N/A Oxidize  95 μL oxidizer 45 TwoWash 250 μL acetonitrile 0 N/A Capping  60 μL cap A reagent 45 Two  60μL cap B reagent Wash 250 μL acetonitrile 0 N/A Wash 250 μL acetonitrile0 N/A

TABLE 4 Table of post-synthesis reaction sequence Step Volume Incubationtime (s) Vac. Pulse Deblock 120 μL deblock 50 Two Deblock 120 μL deblock50 Two Deblock 120 μL deblock 50 Two Wash 250 μL acetonitrile 0 N/A Wash250 μL acetonitrile 0 N/A Wash 250 μL acetonitrile 0 N/A

Oligonucleotide Postprocessing

Oligonucleotides were chemically cleaved from CPG columns by incubationin strong base. 100 μL of ˜30% ammonium hydroxide (VWR, EM-AX1303-11)was placed into the CPG column and incubated at room temperature for 15min. After incubation, the ammonium solution was captured in a 2 mLdeepwell microplate (Phenix Research, M-1810) in the microplate cleavageapparatus (BioAutomation, MPMM192-1-029). This process was repeatedtwice more for a total of three cleavage incubations. Next, the platewas sealed with an adhesive aluminum foil sheet (ISC BioExpress,T-2420-1), placed into a microplate deprotection chuck (BioAutomation,A-MM192-DEPROTECTION CHUCK), and deprotection proceeded in the ammoniaovernight (16-20 hours) at 55° C.

After deprotection, the ammonium was removed in an evaporativemicroplate dryer (BioAutomation, 11-80965) at 55° C., 20 L/min air, for10-20 min. After this time, an approximate volume of ˜200 μL remained.Ten volumes (2 mL) of 1-butanol (Sigma Aldrich, B7906) were added toeach microwell and the plate was sealed in a thermal microplate sealer(REMP, EasySealer) with an Easy Peel Heat Sealing Film sheet (ISCBioExpress, T-2418-1). To solubilize the water solution into thebutanol, the plate was rotated end-over-end on a Mini LabRoller (LabnetInternational, H5500) for 10-15 min. Next, the precipitatedoligonucleotides were pelleted by centrifugation at 2,500 g for 10 minin microplate centrifuge (Thermo Fisher Scientific, 11177564). Thesealing film was discarded and the plate was carefully decanted. Theoligonucleotide pellets were then dried in the evaporative microplatedryer at 55° C., 20 L/min air, for 5-15 min, until devoid of anymoisture. The oligonucleotides were then resuspended in 300 μL of TEbuffer (10 mM Tris (pH 8.0), 1 mM EDTA).

Next, the oligonucleotides were diluted 200-fold (1 μL stock into 199 μLof water) in a UV-transparent microplate (Costar, 3635) and mixed. Thedilution plate was then read in a microplate spectrophotometer (Tecan,GENios) and the stock oligonucleotide concentration was determined. Asoftware program, REARRYER, then created movement scripts for a TecanGenesis or Evo liquid handling robot to facilitate volume additions todilute each individual oligonucleotide to a common stock concentration(e.g., 100 μM). The stock plate was placed on the robot, the script wasexecuted, and the oligonucleotides were brought to identicalconcentrations and mixed. A working dilution plate was then made forgene synthesis (1 μM) in a 1 mL microplate (Nalge Nunc, 260252) and usedfor robotically assembled synthetic gene building.

Synthetic Open Reading Frame Creation

The synthetic open reading frames were constructed in an automatedfashion from the oligonucleotide stocks as previously described (Cox etal., (2007)) by using inside-out nucleation of gene fragments (Gao etal., (2003)) and splice-overlap extension PCR (Horton et al., (1989)) tofabricate full-length genes. Tables 5, 6 and 7 indicate thecharacteristics of the oligonucleotide scaffold system used to createthe ORFs in this work for Leishmania mexicana triosephosphate isomerase,E65Q mutant (lmTIM; GI:12084529; SEQ ID NO:4), Gallus gallus liver basicfatty acid binding protein (ggFABP; GI:12084529; SEQ ID NO:2); andThermus thermophilus aspartate aminotransferase (ttAST; GI:5821836; SEQID NO:1). ORFs were encoded as a two fragment system comprised of fourprimer pairs per fragment.

TABLE 5 The characteristics of the oligonucleotide scaffold system usedto create the ORFs for lmTIM, where strand indicates sense (S) oranti-sense (A) directionality Oligo Start End Oligo # Fragment pairStrand nucleotide nucleotide 1 A 1 S 184 274 2 A 1 A 335 245 3 A 2 S 123213 4 A 2 A 397 306 5 A 3 S 62 152 6 A 3 A 459 368 7 A 4 S 1 91 8 A 4 A521 430 9 B 1 S 675 765 10 B 1 A 826 736 11 B 2 S 614 704 12 B 2 A 888797 13 B 3 S 553 643 14 B 3 A 950 859 15 B 4 S 492 582 16 B 4 A 1012 921

TABLE 6 The characteristics of the oligonucleotide scaffold system usedto create the ORFs for ggFABP, where strand indicates sense (S) oranti-sense (A) directionality Oligo Start End Oligo # Fragment pairStrand nucleotide nucleotide 1 A 1 S 107 188 2 A 1 A 240 159 3 A 2 S 54136 4 A 2 A 292 211 5 A 3 S 1 83 6 A 3 A 344 263 7 B 1 S 420 501 8 B 1 A553 472 9 B 2 S 368 449 10 B 2 A 605 524 11 B 3 S 315 397 12 B 3 A 657576

TABLE 7 The characteristics of the oligonucleotide scaffold system usedto create the ORFs for ttAST, where strand indicates sense (S) oranti-sense (A) directionality Oligo Start End Oligo # Fragment pairStrand nucleotide nucleotide 1 A 1 S 178 266 2 A 1 A 324 237 3 A 2 S 119207 4 A 2 A 382 295 5 A 3 S 60 148 6 A 3 A 440 353 7 A 4 S 1 89 8 A 4 A498 411 9 B 1 S 646 734 10 B 1 A 792 705 11 B 2 S 587 675 12 B 2 A 850763 13 B 3 S 528 616 14 B 3 A 908 821 15 B 4 S 469 557 16 B 4 A 879 96617 C 1 S 114 1202 18 C 1 A 1260 1173 19 C 2 S 1055 1143 20 C 2 A 13181231 21 C 3 S 996 1084 22 C 3 A 1376 1289 23 C 4 S 937 1025 24 C 4 A1434 1347

In vitro Coupled Transcription and Translation Reactions

An in vitro coupled transcription and translation (TnT) system was used,based on the PANOxSP E. coli S30 lysate system (Jewitt & SwartzBiotechnol. Bioeng 86:19-26 (2004); Jewitt & Swartz Biotechnol. Bioeng.87:465-472 (2004)). An S30 lysate was prepared from BL21 Star (DE3) E.coli cells (Invitrogen) grown to mid-log phase in shaking cultureflasks, rinsed of medium, flash-frozen, thawed, lysed in a French press,centrifuged to remove cellular debris, and incubated to facilitate a‘run-off’ of any mRNA still bound to ribosomal complexes. The lysate wasdialyzed, centrifuged again to remove precipitants, and stored inflash-frozen aliquots. The reactions were initiated by addingbiotinylated linear PCR template (1 μg per 100 μL reaction) to purifiedS30 lysate along with a reaction master mix which contained magnesiumglutamate, ammonium glutamate, potassium glutamate, canonicalribonucleotide triphosphates, folinic acid, total E. coli tRNAs, aminoacids, phosphoenolpyruvate, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, coenzymeA, oxalic acid, putrescine, spermidine, and rifampicin. The componentswere mixed gently by repeated aspiration/dispense pipetting andincubated for 5 hours at 30° C., 500 rpm, in a RTS ProteoMasterinstrument (Roche), in uncapped reaction tubes sealed with an Air Poremembrane (Qiagen) to facilitate oxygen exchange while minimizingevaporation. After incubation, expressed protein was purified byaffinity chromatography (see below).

Several biological components were used to synthesize protein from a DNAtemplate. The soluble portion of the cytoplasm was crudely purified andcontained the proteins to carry out translation. Additionally, rawmaterials, energy sources, stabilizers, inhibitors and energyregeneration molecules were added. The in vitro protein expressionsystem described here was principally derived from PANOx (Jewett andSwartz, (2004b); Kim and Swartz, (2001)) PANOxSP (Jewett and Swartz,(2004a, c)), and Cytomim (Jewett and Swartz, (2004a)).

S30 Lysate Preparation

In prokaryotic cells, the events of transcription and translation (TnT)were coupled, with translation starting before the RNA polymerasefinished transcribing the message RNA. Thus, a crude purification ofbacterial cell lysate contained the cellular machinery for mRNAtranscription and protein translation. Extract contained the machineryrequired for translation, including ribosomes, ribosome initiationfactors, ribosome elongation factors, ribosome termination factors, etc.Small molecules, raw materials and cofactors were added in addition tothe DNA template to produce protein from a cell-free extract. A TnTreaction produced protein for a limited amount of time, usually untileither one of the amino acids or the energy supply was depleted and/ordegraded.

One mechanism of energy and reagent depletion was likely throughunregulated, endogenous cellular phosphatases that nonspecificallydephosphorylate ribonucleotide triphosphates in the reaction mix. Thisdrastically cut the effective energy supply, limiting protein production(Kawarasaki et al., (1995)). Alternative solutions to this issue greatlyincrease the complication of lysate production. However, exogenousinorganic phosphate and glucose in the medium downregulates expressionof some E. coli phosphatases (Kim and Choi, (2001)). This step more thandoubled effective expression time with a ˜35% increase in expressedprotein.

The procedure to produce cell-free extract has been streamlined byothers (Liu et al., (2005)) and removes superfluous steps found in olderextract preparation methods. The expression system presented hereutilized the BL21 Star (DE3) cell strain. The BL21 Star strain containeda deletion in the rne131 gene, coding for RNase E. This specificdeletion contained the N-terminal domain for obligate ribosomal RNAprocessing but lacked the C-terminal domain (Kido et al., (1996); Lopezet al., (1999)). Removal of this domain increased the stability of themRNA and improved protein production in cell-free extracts (Alm et al.,(2005); Hahn and Kim, (2006)). This strain also contained a DE3 lysogenthat harbored T7 RNA polymerase under control of a lac promoter.

To begin the process of lysate creation, BL21 Star (DE3) competent cells(Invitrogen, C6010-03) were plated on a LB agar plate to yield distinctcolonies. The plate was incubated overnight at 37° C. The next day, asterile, baffled 250 mL flask was filled with 75 mL of 2×YT-PG medium(16 g/L tryptone (Sigma Aldrich, T7293), 10 g/L yeast extract (SigmaAldrich, 70161), 5 g/L NaCl (Sigma Aldrich, 71376), 22 mM NaH₂PO₄ (SigmaAldrich, S5011), 40 mM Na₂HPO₄ (Sigma Aldrich, S5136), and 100 mMglucose (Sigma Aldrich, G7021)). One colony of BL21 Star (DE3) was usedto inoculate the medium and the flask was incubated on a shakingplatform overnight at 37° C.

The overnight seed culture was used to inoculate large, baffled flasksfor growth. During logarithmic growth phase, the cell strain was mildlyinduced to express T7 RNA polymerase. Prior to an initial fermentation,an optical density-based growth curve was performed to determine timesof lagging and logarithmic growth, as these can greatly vary betweenmedium ingredient lots, different flask sizes, different incubators,etc. Thus, baffled culture flasks containing 2×YT-PG medium wereinoculated with 1/100th volume of overnight culture. The flasks wereincubated on a shaking platform at 37° C. (at 115 rpm for six literbaffled flasks) according to the pre-established growth curve; cultureswere grown to approximately 30% of completion of logarithmic growth(˜2.5 hours for 1.5 liter medium in a six liter baffled flask) and T7RNA polymerase expression was induced with the addition of 0.25 M IPTG.

Cultures were permitted to grow and continue expression until reachingapproximately 75% of completion of logarithmic growth (an additional˜1.75 hours at the above conditions) and then immediately chilled on icefor 15 min. The cells were then harvested by centrifugation in apre-chilled rotor at 4° C. for 20 min at 5,000 g. Next, the cell pelletswere washed by decanting the exhausted medium supernatant andresuspending the pellets in 1/20th original medium volume of S30 buffer(10 mM Tris-acetate, (pH 8.2; Sigma Aldrich, T1258), 14 mM magnesiumacetate tetrahydrate (Sigma Aldrich, M5661), 60 mM potassium acetate(Sigma Aldrich, P1190), and 2 mM dithiotheitol (Sigma Aldrich, D9779)).The pellets were resuspended through vigorous agitation with amicrocentrifuge tube vortexer, or a cordless drill with a plasticspatula attached as the bit (VWR, 53800-005). Two empty 250 mL conicalcentrifuge tubes were weighed and the mass was recorded. The resuspendedcell slurry was divided among the tubes and pelleted at 4° C. for 10 minat 5,000 g. The tubes were then carefully decanted and weighed again todetermine the wet cell paste mass. Finally, the pellets were flashfrozen in liquid nitrogen and stored overnight at −80° C.

Next, the frozen cell pellets were thawed on ice for approximately onehour. S30 buffer was added at a volume of 1 mL per g of wet cell paste,and the pellets were resuspended by vortexing. DTT was added to theapproximate volume of cell slurry to a concentration of 5 mM. The cellswere then ruptured by application of a French press at 17,000 psi one ortwo times. The soluble fraction was enriched by centrifugation at 4° C.,30,000 g, for 30 min. The soluble portion was then clarified again by asecond centrifugation application at 4° C., 30,000 g, for 30 min in anew centrifuge tube.

A simplified run-off reaction (Liu et al., (2005)) was performed tofacilitate release of E. coli mRNA from the ribosomes; the run-offreaction does not require any reagents. The centrifuged supernatant wascarefully aspirated and placed into centrifuge tubes (e.g., 15 mL or 50mL conical tubes) and was incubated at 37° C. for 80 min, rotatingend-over-end on a Mini LabRoller (Labnet International, H5500) in thedark (alternatively, the tubes were covered with foil). Next, the lysatewas dialyzed to control the pH and salt concentration, and thenclarified to remove any precipitated proteins. During the run-offreaction, dialysis tubing (6-8 kDa MWCO; Spectra/Por, 132-650) wasprepared by equilibration in Heavy Metals Cleaning Solution(Spectra/Por, 132-908) for approximately one-half hour. The tubing wasthen copiously washed with ultra-pure water. The run-off reaction wasloaded into the tubing and then dialyzed into approximately 80 volumesof pre-chilled S30 buffer at 4° C. for one-hour. After dialysis, thelysate was centrifuged at 4° C., 4,000 g, for 10 min to removeprecipitated products. Finally, the cell-free extract was aliquoted intomicrocentrifuge tubes, flash-frozen in liquid nitrogen, and stored at−80° C. The lysate was stable without reduction in expression for atleast two months.

Reaction Mix Formulation

The 4× reaction mix contained the small molecules, energy compounds, rawmaterials, and cofactors used to fuel transcription and translation inthe cell-free extract. It contained magnesium glutamate, ammoniumglutamate, potassium glutamate, the canonical ribonucleotidetriphosphates, folinic acid, E. coli total tRNAs, the canonical aminoacids, phosphoenolpyruvate, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, coenzymeA, oxalic acid, putrescine, spermidine, and rifampicin. (See Tables 8and 9). Solutions that were not completely consumed in one batch ofreaction mix were stored at −80° C. Putrescine and spermidine wereincubated at 37° C. to change phase into liquid form and were pipettedrather than weighed. Solutions listed as “unbuffered” were notpH-corrected with acid or base due to the solutions' weak bufferingcapacity, or because it was specifically left unbuffered in previousprotocols.

TABLE 8 Table of reagents included in the reaction master mix PartReagent number Source Description PEP 108294 Roche phosphoenol-pyruvatemonopotassium salt NAD N6522 Sigma Aldrich β-Nicotinamide adeninedinucleotide hydrate CoA C4282 Sigma Aldrich coenzyme A hydratePutrescine D13208 Sigma Aldrich 1,4-Butanediamine Spermadine S0266 SigmaAldrich N-(3-Aminopropyl)-1,4-diaminobutane Oxalate O0501 Sigma Aldrichpotassium oxalate monohydrate Magnesium 49605 Sigma Aldrich L-glutamicacid hemimagnesium salt glutamate tetrahydrate Ammonium G1376 SigmaAldrich L-glutamic acid ammonium salt glutamate Potassium G1501 SigmaAldrich L-glutamic acid potassium salt monohydrate glutamate FolinateF7878 Sigma Aldrich folinic acid calcium salt tRNAs 109550 Roche tRNAfrom E. coli MRE 600 Rifampicin R3501 Sigma Aldrich rifampicin rATPA2383 Sigma Aldrich adenosine 5′-triphosphate disodium salt rCTP C1506Sigma Aldrich cytidine 5′-triphosphate disodium salt rGTP G8877 SigmaAldrich guanosine 5′-triphosphate sodium salt hydrate rUTP U6750 SigmaAldrich uridine 5′-triphosphate trisodium salt hydrate Alanine 5129Sigma Aldrich L-alanine Arginine 11009 Sigma Aldrich L-arginineAsparagine 11009 Sigma Aldrich L-asparagine Aspartate 11149 SigmaAldrich L-aspartic acid Cysteine 30089 Sigma Aldrich L-cysteineGlutamate 49449 Sigma Aldrich L-glutamic acid Glutamine 49419 SigmaAldrich L-glutamine Glycine 50049 Sigma Aldrich Glycine Histidine 53319Sigma Aldrich L-histidine Isoleucine 58879 Sigma Aldrich L-isoleucineLeucine 61819 Sigma Aldrich L-leucine Lysine 62929 Sigma AldrichL-lysine monohydrochloride Methionine 64319 Sigma Aldrich L-methioninePhenylalanine P5482 Sigma Aldrich L-phenylalanine Proline 81709 SigmaAldrich L-proline Serine 84959 Sigma Aldrich L-serine Threonine 89179Sigma Aldrich L-threonine Tryptophan 93659 Sigma Aldrich L-tryptophanTyrosine 93829 Sigma Aldrich L-tyrosine Valine 94620 Sigma AldrichL-valine

A nineteen amino acid mixture was prepared as a suspended mixture first,excluding tyrosine due to its poor solubility at physiologicalconditions. A 250 mL solution of 50 mM amino acids was created bycombining 1.46 g valine, 2.53 g tryptophan, 2.07 g phenylalanine, and1.64 g isoleucine in 200 mL of pure water. These were incubated at 37°C. with mixing or agitation for 15 min to facilitate dissolution. Next,1.64 g leucine and 1.52 g cysteine were added, and the solution wasagain incubated at 37° C. with mixing or agitation for 15 min. Then,1.87 g methionine, 1.11 g alanine, 2.18 g arginine, 1.65 g asparagine,1.66 g aspartate, 1.84 g glutamate, 0.94 g glycine, and 1.83 g glutaminewere added. The pH was then adjusted by addition of 1.0 mL of 10N KOH(Sigma Aldrich, P5958). Finally, 1.94 g histidine, 2.28 g lysine, 1.44 gproline, 1.31 g serine, and 1.49 g threonine were dissolved, and thesolution volume was brought up to 250 mL. The solution was divided intosix aliquots of 41 mL each, and extra aliquots were stored at −80° C.

TABLE 9 Table of stock concentrations, volumes, and pH used to constructthe 4X reaction master mix solution Solution Final Solution [Stock]Volume Amount pH Acid/base PEP 1M 35 mL 7.22 g 6.8-7.3 10N KOH NAD 50 mM7 mL 232 mg 6-7 10N KOH CoA 40 mM 7 mL 215 mg 7.3 10N KOH Putrescine 100mM 10 mL 88.2 mg/100.5 μL 7.3 glacial HOAc Spermidine 100 mM 15 mL 218mg/236 μL  7.3 glacial HOAc Oxalate 1M 15 mL 2.76 g 8.4 unbuffered Mg⁺⁺1M 50 mL 19.43 g 7.3 10N KOH glutamate NH₄ ⁺ 1.5M   50 mL 12.32 g 7.310N KOH glutamate K⁺ glutamate 3.5M   250 mL 177.83 g 8.2 unbufferedFolinate 10.8 mg/mL 15 mL 162 mg   7-7.5 unbuffered tRNAs 34 mg/mL 5 mL172 mg 7.2 dissolved in 10 mM K2PO4, pH 7.2 Rifampicin 1 mg/mL 50 mL 50mg 6-7 10N KOH rATP 500 mM 5 mL 1.38 g 7.3 10N KOH rCTP 500 mM 5 mL 1.32g 7.3 10N KOH rGTP 500 mM 5 mL 1.31 g 7.3 10N KOH rUTP 500 mM 5 mL 1.38g 7.3 10N KOH 19 amino 50 mM 250 mL Various n/a 10N KOH acids

The 4× reaction master mix was created as follows and summarized inTable 10. 250 mL of reaction master mix was prepared at one time, enoughto fuel 1 liter of total TnT reactions. First, the nineteen amino acidsolution was added to a clean beaker, along with the powdered tyrosine,and water. The solution was mixed well. Next, the glutamate salts wereadded, and the solution was again mixed well. Then, folinic acid, tRNAs,PEP, NAD, coenzyme A, oxalic acid, putrescine, spermadine, andrifampicin were added and mixed. Finally, the four ribonucleotides wereadded and mixed. The 4× reaction master mix was then flash-frozen inliquid nitrogen and stored at −80° C. Because some of tyrosine was notsoluble at this concentration, the master mix solution was kept stirringduring aspiration and aliquoting to keep the tyrosine flakes distributedthroughout the master mix.

TABLE 10 Table of stock volumes used to create the 4X reaction mastermix Solution Stock Amount to add 4x conc. 1x conc. 19 amino acids 50 mM40 mL 8 mM 2 mM Tyrosine n/a 371 mg 8 mM 2 mM Water n/a 37.3 mL n/a n/aMg⁺⁺ glutamate 1M 10 mL 40 mM 10 mM NH₄ ⁺ glutamate 1.5M   6.7 mL 40 mM10 mM K⁺ glutamate 3.5M   50 mL 700 mM 175 mM Folinate 10.8 mg/mL 3.14mL 136 μg/mL 34 μg/mL tRNAs 34 mg/mL 5 mL 682 μg/mL 171 μg/mL PEP 1M33.3 mL 120 mM 30 mM NAD 50 mM 6.67 mL 1.33 mM 0.33 mM CoA 40 mM 6.67 mL1.08 mM 0.27 mM Oxalate 1M 2.7 mL 10.8 mM 2.7 mM Putrescine 100 mM 10 mL4 mM 1 mM Spermadine 100 mM 15 mL 6 mM 1.5 mM Rifampicin 1 mg/mL 15 mL40 μg/mL 10 μg/mL rATP 500 mM 2.5 mL 5 mM 1.25 mM rCTP 500 mM 2 mL 4 mM1 mM rGTP 500 mM 2 mL 4 mM 1 mM rUTP 500 mM 2 mL 4 mM 1 mM

DNA Template Characteristics

A DNA template was supplied for transcription and subsequenttranslation. It was advantageous to supply a DNA template and performtranscription rather than just supplying a purified mRNA templatebecause the activity of endogenous ribonucleases in the extract is high,and an mRNA template generally lasts on the order of seconds-to-minutes.By constantly regenerating mRNA from a DNA template, a large amount ofprotein can be produced. Additionally, the mRNA may have a stem-loopstructure to enhance message stability. The template and its synthesishave been previously described above. In addition to a gene, thesynthetic construct contained a T7 RNA polymerase promoter (Chamberlinet al., (1970); Davanloo et al., (1984)), a Shine-Dalgarno ribosomebinding site (Curry and Tomich, (1988); Shine and Dalgarno, (1974)), anoptimized open reading frame, and a T7 terminator stem-loop structure(Mertens et al., (1996)).

The untranslated promoter and terminator segments are provided below.The 5′ segment contained a T7 RNA polymerase promoter (in bold) as wellas a Shine-Delgarno ribosome binding site (in italics).

(SEQ ID NO: 5) 5′-CGGCGTAGAGGATCGAGATCTCGATCCCGCGAAATTAATACGACTCACTATAGGGGAATTGTGAGCGGATAACAATTCCCCTCTAGAAATAATTTTGTTTAACTTTAAGAAGGAGATATACC-3′.

The 3′ segment contained a gly-gly-ser fusion linker (in bold),poly-histidine purification tag (in italics), and two stop codons(underlined) as well as a T7 transcriptional terminator structure.

(SEQ ID NO: 6) 5′-GGCGGCTCC CACCATCACCATCACCAT TAATGAGAGATCCGGCTGCTAACAAAGCCCGAAAGGAAGCTGAGTTGGCTGCTGCCACCGCTGAGCAATAACTAGCATAACCCCTTGGGGCCTCTAAACGGGTCTTGAGG-3′.

Purification of Proteins Encoded by Synthetic Genes

Protocols were developed for quantifiable protein production andpurification. All three proteins were constructed with a C-terminalhexahistidine fusion and purified using EZview Red HIS-Select HC NickelAffinity Gel (Sigma Aldrich). A suspended gel slurry of 50 μL was washedwith 1 mL loading buffer (20 mM MOPS (pH 7.5), 7.5 mM imidazole, 500 mMNaCl). Completed TnT reactions (25-100 μL) were combined with the washedaffinity gel in the addition of 1 mL loading buffer and captured at 4°C. for 1 hour rotating end-over-end in a Mini LabRoller (LabnetInternational), followed by washing with loading buffer (twice with 1mL), and elution of bound protein with 100 μL elution buffer (20 mM MOPS(pH 7.5), 400 mM imidazole, 500 mM NaCl) incubating for 30 min at 4° C.(rotating end-over-end). Each affinity elution was concentrated usingVivaspin 500 centrifugal concentrators (Sartorius Stedim, 5 kDamolecular weight cut-off) by centrifugation at 13,500 g for 10-15 min.The entire final volume (˜25 μL) was loaded into one SDS-PAGE gel lane;the gel was stained with GelCode Blue Stain Reagent (Thermo FisherScientific). A poly-histidine tagged GFP template was included in eachexperiment as a positive expression and purification control, a TnTreaction incubated without any DNA template was used as a negativecontrol. Nearly 286 synthetic genes were tested in at least twoindependent experiments. The seven condition experiments for all threescaffolds were tested in at least three independent experiments and themajority of the other synthetic genes were tested in at least twoindependent experiments.

Protein Identification by Mass Spectrometry

Liquid chromatography (LC)—tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) was used tovalidate protein identifications, by analysis of peptides generated fromin-gel tryptic digests. Samples were prepared according to the in-geldigestion protocol available athttp://www.genome.duke.edu/cores/proteomics/sample-preparation/.Approximately half of the sample from each gel band was analyzed on ananoAcquity LC and Synapt HDMS system (Waters Corporation) using a 30min LC gradient, with the top three precursor ions from each MS scanselected for MS/MS sequencing. Raw data was processed using MascotDistiller v2.0 and searched against the Swiss-Prot database (v57.11)using Mascot v2.2 (Matrix Sciences), allowing for fixed modification ofCys (carbamidomethylation) and variable modification of Met (oxidation).Scaffold (v2.6) was used to validate the peptide and proteinidentifications. Sequence coverage obtained from this analysis for eachof the proteins is shown in FIG. 2.

Determination of mRNA Levels

mRNA levels were examined by addition of 10 μCi of α-labeled rATP(Perkin Elmer). Aliquots of 10 μL were removed from the expressionreaction and immediately mixed into 100 μL Trizol (Invitrogen),incubated (5 min, room temperature), followed by addition of 20 μLchloroform (3 min at ambient temperature), and followed by vortexing (15seconds). To separate phases, the samples were centrifuged at 12,000 g(15 min), and the RNA-containing aqueous phase was aspirated andprocessed through a NucAway Spin Column (Applied Biosystems) to removeunincorporated label. The entire eluate (˜50 μL) was mixed with 200 μLof OptiPhase SuperMix scintillation cocktail (Perkin Elmer) and countedin a MicroBeta Trilux scintillation counter (Perkin Elmer). To determinethe optimal reading point, a time course was constructed using aliquotstaken at 0, 5, 10, 15, 30, 45, 60, 120, 180, 240 and 300 min for apoorly and highly expressing template respectively for each of the threegenes. Near-maximal mRNA levels were observed at one hour; this singletime point was used subsequently to characterize the alleles.

Example 4 Construction and Expression Patterns of Synthetic Genes in E.coli

The bioinformatic analysis indicated that regional AU content andsecondary structure at the beginning and end of ORFs were a feature thatwas apparently conserved across bacterial species. The higher variancesof these two parameters relative to the middle region of the ORF furthersuggested that they may play a role in some control processes. However,this analysis provided no further information on their functionalimportance, nor did it provide guidance on codon usage. To testexperimentally whether these features played a role in effecting proteinexpression levels and their relative contributions, a computer algorithm(ORFOPT) was developed to specify qualitatively their presence insynthetic genes. See Example 1.

285 synthetic genes distributed over three proteins that varied in size,structure, origin, and heterologous expression levels of their wild-typeORF sequences were designed and constructed. These synthetic genes wereconstructed by automation methods using a robust PCR-mediated geneassembly scheme. See Example 1. Full-length linear PCR fragmentscontaining synthetic ORFs flanked by constant control regions encoding aT7 promoter, ribosome binding site, and T7 terminator (see FIG. 4) weretested for protein expression using a coupled in vitro transcription andtranslation extract prepared from the E. coli BL21 Star strain. An invitro expression approach to provide a standard, well-defined set ofconditions was used. Furthermore, the BL21 Star strain lacked theC-terminal portion of RNase E (Lopez et. al, (1999)), thereby removingcomplexities associated with mRNA turnover (Carpousis, (2007)).

Analysis of the 42 synthetic alleles shown in FIG. 3 was particularlyillustrative. These alleles were designed using seven differentoptimization conditions in which their CAI, regional nucleotidecomposition, and mRNA secondary structure were optimized singly and incombination; the values of parameters that were not explicitly optimizedwere left unconstrained. The resulting seven conditions were tested inall three proteins and for each condition in vitro expression levels oftwo or three alleles differing by at least 10 isocodon changes wereevaluated. For each condition, the expression pattern of two allelesdiffering by at least 10 mutations are shown in FIG. 3. Three proteinsdiffering in size, structure, origin and expression of wild-type ORFsequences were used: Thermus thermophilus asparate aminotransferase(ttAST; ˜43 kDa, (αβα)-sandwich, no expression), Gallus gallus fattyacid binding protein (ggFABP; ˜15 kDa, β-clam, good expression), andLeishmania mexicana triose phosphate isomerase (lmTIM; ˜28 kDa,(αβ)₈-barrel, poor-to-no expression). Proteins were purified from crudeextract using immobilized metal affinity chromatography and run onSDS-PAGE gels (FIG. 3A). Green fluorescent protein was included as apositive control for protein expression. An extract without added DNAwas a negative control. Observed expression levels were classified intoone of four categories (numbers above gel lanes in FIG. 3: zero (noexpression), one (weak expression), two (medium expression), three (highexpression)). Time courses of radiolabeled RNA in reactions containing ahigh- (black) and low- (grey) expression level allele of ttAST (FIG.3B), ggFABP (FIG. 3C) and lmTIM (FIG. 3D) were measured to determine thetime point at which the highest level of newly synthesized mRNA waspresent, which was found to be at ˜1 hour in each case. The amount ofmRNA present in the alleles shown in FIG. 3A (one representative memberper pair) was measured at 1 hour (FIG. 3E, ttAST; FIG. 3F, ggFABP; FIG.3G, lmTIM).

Taken together these data clearly indicate that high levels of proteinexpression were achieved reliably in synthetic genes for which allparameters were optimized simultaneously. Taken together, the resultsshow that expression levels were strongly influenced by high AU contentin the N-terminal region, followed in importance by low secondarystructure content. Optimization of the CAI by itself was ineffectual,but improved expression levels in the presence of the other two factors.Typically, the highest expression levels were obtained if all threefactors were optimized simultaneously.

A further 243 synthetic genes were constructed to explore quantitativevariation of these features in the three different regions of the ORFs(data not shown). The expression patterns of all synthetic genes wereclassified by inspection into four categories: zero (no expression), one(weak expression), two (medium expression), three (high expression)(FIG. 3A). With exception of the CAI, which was not sampled below 0.45,the resultant dataset provides reasonable sampling of the ORF features(FIG. 5, right column) and experimental outcomes (FIG. 6B), enabling theconstruction of an empirically parameterized mathematical function thatpredicts expression level from ORF nucleotide sequence: On analyzing thedata, it was noticed that the observations could not be described usinga linear combination of the ORF parameters, but appeared to behave asthresholds: if a feature fell below a threshold value it fully orpartially inhibited expression, whereas if it was above the threshold,an increase in its value did not contribute much. Each of the sixparameters (two regional nucleotide compositions, three regionalsecondary structure scores, and the CAI determined over the entire ORF)were represented as a sum of two sigmoidal curves corresponding topenalty and reward thresholds, respectively. See FIG. 5. The functionwas parameterized against the entire 285 synthetic gene dataset, using asimulated annealing algorithm with 10,000 independent optimizationcalculations. In addition to obtaining an optimal parameter set, thisensemble of solutions provided a Monte Carlo sampling of the fits (FIG.5, left column). The resulting function predicted 69.2% of the fourexperimentally observed expression categories perfectly (FIG. 6A), andtheir remainder typically to their closest neighboring category. Thehighest and lowest expression levels were predicted the most accurately.

The fits reveal the relative contributions for each of the sixparameters as described above. Any single parameter can adversely affectexpression levels if it enters the penalty region of its thresholdfunctions. Although the CAI was not nearly as dominant as might havebeen concluded from other studies, it can significantly enhanceexpression levels if high; conversely, if low, it was inhibitoryalthough the precise numerical value of this latter effect was not yetwell determined by the sampling.

The bioinformatic analysis revealed that canonical bacterial genes hadstrong regional biases in nucleotide composition and RNA secondarystructure within the first and last ˜35 bases of ORFs and that thesefeatures were unusually conserved regardless of overall genomicnucleotide composition. This analysis also revealed that genomicnucleotide composition and corresponding biases in amino acidcomposition were the main determinant of the average codon adaptionindex observed in genomes. The experimental analysis of expressionlevels of synthetic genes that were designed to vary these parametersshowed that expression levels were strongly determined by nucleotidecomposition, especially in the N-terminal region.

Fits were obtained using a stochastic, simulated annealing algorithmwith 10,000 independent optimization calculations. In addition toobtaining an optimal parameter set, this ensemble of solutions provideda Monte Carlo sampling of the error of the fits (FIG. 5, left column).The behavior of the distribution of parameter values gives an indicationof how well these values were determined and the likely importance oftheir contribution to protein expression levels. The N-terminal AUcomposition (FIG. 5A) and secondary structure dependencies (FIG. 5D)were well determined. Composition contributes significantly above ˜55%AU content and was strongly inhibitory below that value. Low secondarystructure content was rewarded but high structure content was notstrongly inhibitory. The C-terminal features were less well determined.The AU composition clearly has both a reward and a penalty contributionabove and below ˜57% respectively, but the numerical weight of thesecontributions remains ill determined. By contrast, C-terminal structuredoes not appear to play a significant role. Contributions of secondarystructure in the middle region were fairly well determined. A very highstructural content has a modest negative impact, near-absence ofsecondary structure was moderately favorable and in general the presenceof secondary structure in this region was neutral. The contributions ofthe CAI for the whole ORF were qualitatively well determined, butuncertainty regarding the precise weight of penalty and reward remain.The CAI can significantly enhance expression levels if above ˜0.8;conversely, if below ˜0.5, it was inhibitory although the precisenumerical value of this latter effect was not yet well determined by thesampling.

The threshold effect for N-terminal AU composition was well illustratedby a series of alleles in which the N-terminal AU content wassystematically varied while maintaining the other five parameters closeto constant values. For the ttAST alleles 52a-53b and the lmTIM alleles34a-35b (FIG. 7), there was a sudden increase in expression levels ontransitioning from 48.6% to 54.3% (compare ttAST alleles 52a,b and53a,b, lmTIM alleles 34a and 34b, or lmTIM 35a and 35b, as thecomposition transitions through the threshold. The four alleles lmTIM36a-37b with 57.1% to 60.0% AU content illustrate that if the thresholdwas exceeded, there was not much apparent further gain in expression.Even with the use of computer algorithms, it was difficult to constructexamples in the dataset for the other five features in which variationin one was cleanly separated from changes in the others, whichillustrates how difficult if was to isolate the multifactorialcontributions.

The contributions of the mRNA features analyzed in this study affect thethree phases of translation efficiency: initiation, elongation, andtermination (Bashan and Yonath, (2008); Ramakrishnan, (2002); Steitz,(2008)). Initiation involves the highly regulated loading of mRNA ontothe ribosome (Marintchev and Wagner, (2004)). Similarly, termination isa carefully orchestrated process, involving recognition of the stopcodon by release factors (Petry et al., (2008)). Without being limitedby any particular mechanism or process, the correlation between loweredsecondary structure in the N-terminal and C-terminal ORF regions andincreased protein expression levels presumably arises from improvedaccess as the mRNA was threaded onto the ribosome or accessory factorswere loaded at initiation and termination, respectively. The origin ofthe correlation between protein expression and elevated AU content inthese segments is less clear. Although a lowering of secondary structurestability may be directly contributory, this effect alone was unlikelyto account for the observed threshold behavior of this feature. RNAhelicases catalyze the unfolding of secondary structure and nucleotidecomposition could encode semi-specific recognition by such a helicaseactivity, giving rise to a threshold effect through a binding event. Forinstance, the DEAD-box protein superfamily includes prokaryotic RNAhelicases that recognize AU-rich sequences (Rocak and Linder, (2004)),and in E. coli were involved in the RNA degradosome (Carpousis, (2007)),or ribosomal RNA maturation (Iost and Dreyfus, (2006)). Although DEADboxes play a role in eukaryotic initiation of translation (Rocak andLinder, (2004)), no such function has been reported in prokaryotes. Theribosome itself contains an mRNA helicase activity that acts on aposition within all bases from the codon that is being read (Takyar etal., (2005)). Although this activity appears largely independent ofsequence, it was tempting to speculate that local nucleotide compositioncould influence it analogous to DEAD-box proteins. If this was the case,the patterns of nucleotide composition variance observed in allprokaryotes could reflect increased ribosomal helicase activity at thebeginning and end of ORFs.

Translation and mRNA unwinding are tightly coupled in the elongationphase (Wen et al., (2008)), accounting for the observed boost inexpression levels at low secondary structure content for the middlesegment. The lack of penalty at intermediate structural content againmay reflect RNA helicase activity. The CAI also affects the elongationphase as it tends to reflect the relative concentrations of availabletRNA pool (Hershberg and Petrov, (2008)). In the TnT reactions, the tRNApools clearly were different from the in vivo populations. Highlyfavorable CAI values have significant influence on protein expressionlevels. The lowering of the regional CAI in the N-terminal region ofGC-rich bacteria presumably reflects the dominance of AU content overCAI at initiation, because in those genomes, AU-rich codons are lessfrequent and therefore have a lower CAI.

The development of a quantitative relationship between sequence andexpression level should enable prediction of expression levels innatural ORFs and will enable the construction of synthetic genesoptimized for heterologous protein expression. The equation accuratelypredicts high levels of protein expression. This capability enables thesystematic design of highly expressed synthetic genes, as illustrated bythe design of well-expressed genes for Leishmana mexicanatriosephosphate isomerase and Thermus thermophilus asparateaminotransferase, of which the wild-type sequences express barely, if atall.

Example 5 Experimental Procedures for Picomole-Scale Characterization ofProtein Stability

Cell-Free Expression and Purification of Proteins Encoded by SyntheticGenes

The wild-type proteins (SEQ ID NOs: 7-9) and cysteine variants wereproduced by cell-free in vitro transcription and translation (TnT) usingan E. coli extract from BL21 Star (DE3) (Invitrogen; C6010-03) (Jewettet al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 86:19-26 (2004)) programmed with a syntheticlinear DNA fragment that was constructed using automated, PCR-mediatedgene assembly (Cox et al., Prot. Sci. 16: 379-390 (2007)). The syntheticgene sequences contained a 5′ T7-promoter, a 5′ ribosome binding site,and a 3′ T7-terminator flanking an open reading frame whose DNA sequencewas optimized for protein expression using a computational algorithmthat manipulates mRNA structure (see Examples 1 to 4, above). Allproteins contain a C-terminal Flag-affinity tag (GGSDYKDDDDK) forpurification. The sequence of ecRBP used in this study (SEQ ID NO:8) hasthe additional mutation T3W relative to the native sequence.Approximately 2 μg of DNA was added to 200 μL TnT extract and incubatedat 30° C. for 2 hours. Proteins were purified using Flag-affinity beads(Sigma; F2426): beads were pre-blocked for 2 hours (Starting Block;Thermo Scientific; 37543), washed with TBS (25 mM Tris, 150 mM NaCl, pH7.4). 100 μL of TnT extract was combined with 1 mL Flag beads(A600=0.25), incubated at 4° C. (15 min with end-over-end mixing),washed twice with 1 mL of TBS, and eluted with 3×-Flag peptide (Sigma;F4799) buffer (25 mM MOPS, 100 mM KCl, 150 μM 3×-Flag peptide, and pH7.6). Purified proteins were used directly in QCR experiments.

QCR Experiment

The rate of labeling of internal cysteine residues was measured byreacting 30-50 μL of ˜0.1 μM protein sample (i.e., ˜3-5 picomoles ofprotein) with excess IAM-biotin (1 mM unless otherwise stated) atconstant temperature (25 mM MOPS, 100 mM KCl and pH 7.6). 5 μL aliquotswere removed at fixed time intervals and quenched by addition of 2 μL 2Mβ-mercaptoethanol (Sigma; M6250). Following addition of 5 μL LDS-buffer(Invitrogen; NP0007) and heating for 2 min at 85° C., (un)labeledprotein species were resolved by SDS-PAGE (Novex 4-12% Bis-Tris Gels;Invitrogen; NP0321). Observed gel shifts of the biotinylated specieswere caused either by slight differences in conformation between the(un)labeled species (FIG. 8B) or, more typically, by addition of 4 μL of40 mg/mL streptavidin (Pierce; 21125) after heating (FIG. 8A). For theexperiment shown in FIG. 8A, ecRBP variant L62C was modified with 1 mMIAM-biotin at 47.1° C., pH 7.6. FIG. 8A, left panel, shows an SDS-PAGEof the modification over time, with the labeling times indicated forlanes 2-6. Streptavidin was used to alter the electrophoretic mobilityof the labeled protein (Streptavidin bands indicated by a, b, and c).Unlabeled fractions were quantified by densitometry and fit with asingle exponential to obtain reaction rates (right panel) at differenttemperatures (54.6° C., blue; 51.7° C., green; 48.9° C., red; 47.1° C.,orange; 45.2° C., purple; 44.5° C., black); corresponding reaction rateswere 2.6×10⁻³, 1.9×10⁻³, 9.3×10⁻⁴, 5.2×10⁻⁴, 2.6×10⁻⁴, 2.0×10⁻⁴ s⁻¹respectively. Error bars represent the estimated uncertainty of theintegrated band intensities (˜2%). For the experiment shown in FIG. 8B,SN variant L36C was labeled with IAM-biotin at 35.3° C., pH 7.6. FIG.8B, left panel panel, shows an SDS-PAGE of the modification over time,with the labeling times indicated. The (un)labeled forms migratedifferently in the gel, enabling ratiometric quantification to obtainreaction rates (right panel) at different temperatures (38.3° C., blue;35.3° C., green; 32.3° C., red; 29.3° C., orange; 26.3° C., purple;23.3° C., black); corresponding reaction rates were 9.2×10⁻⁴, 3.6×10⁻⁴,1.2×10⁻⁴, 1.5×10⁻⁴, 7.2×10⁻⁵, 3.1×10⁻⁵ s⁻¹ respectively. At 29.3° C.,26.3° C. and 23.3° C., k_(int) and k_(label) were manipulated byincreasing the concentration of IAM-biotin from 1 mM to 3.16 mM.

Following staining with GelCode™ Blue Stain reagent (Thermo Scientific;24592), gel images were digitized and band intensities quantified bydensitometry (ImageJ; Rasband (1997-2009), U.S. National Institutes ofHealth, Bethesda, Md.) and fit to a single exponential to derivek_(label). See Tables 11 and 12. When designing QCR experiments,consideration was given to the degradation of the iodoacetyl moiety ofIAM-biotin, which was dependent on time, exposure to light, andtemperature. At temperatures less than ˜65° C., this effect to benegligible over the time-course of ˜2 hours. At higher temperatures thedegradation of IAM-biotin is taken into account, primarily by limitingthe labeling reaction to less than ˜90 min.

TABLE 11 Temperature dependence of ΔG_(u) for RBP and SN variants [[Ligand] [IAM] Variant μM T ° C. [M] k_(int) s⁻¹ k_(ex) s⁻¹ SN.F34C 26.33.16E−03 2.82E−03 6.10E−05 2.3 SN.F34C 29.3 3.16E−03 3.69E−03 1.10E−042.1 SN.F34C 32.3 1.00E−03 1.53E−03 8.00E−05 1.8 SN.F34C 35.3 1.00E−031.98E−03 2.60E−04 1.2 SN.F34C 38.3 1.00E−03 2.55E−03 7.20E−04 0.6SN.F34C 40.3 1.00E−03 3.02E−03 1.30E−03 0.2 SN.L36C 23.3 3.16E−032.14E−03 3.10E−05 2.5 SN.L36C 26.3 3.16E−03 2.82E−03 7.20E−05 2.2SN.L36C 29.3 3.16E−03 3.70E−03 1.50E−04 1.9 SN.L36C 32.3 1.00E−031.53E−03 1.20E−04 1.5 SN.L36C 35.3 1.00E−03 1.98E−03 3.60E−04 0.9SN.L36C 38.3 1.00E−03 2.55E−03 9.20E−04 0.4 ecRBP.L62C 44.5 1.00E−034.26E−03 2.00E−04 1.9 ecRBP.L62C 45.2 1.00E−03 4.50E−03 2.60E−04 1.8ecRBP.L62C 47.1 1.00E−03 5.25E−03 5.20E−04 1.4 ecRBP.L62C 48.9 1.00E−036.05E−03 9.30E−04 1.1 ecRBP.L62C 51.7 1.00E−03 7.53E−03 1.90E−03 EX1,0.7 ecRBP.L62C 54.6 1.00E−03 9.19E−03 2.60E−03 EX1, 0.6 ecRBP.A188C 45.21.00E−03 4.50E−03 1.10E−04 2.3 ecRBP.A188C 47.1 1.00E−03 5.25E−031.80E−04 2.1 ecRBP.A188C 48.9 1.00E−03 6.05E−03 5.10E−04 1.5 ecRBP.A188C51.7 1.00E−03 7.53E−03 1.50E−03 0.9 ecRBP.A188C 54.6 1.00E−03 9.19E−033.70E−03 0.3

TABLE 12 Ligand dependence of ΔG_(u) for variants of SN (SEQ ID NO: 7),ecRBP (SEQ ID NO: 8) and ecMBP (SEQ ID NO: 9) Variant [Ligand] μM T ° C.[IAM] [M] k_(int) s⁻¹ k_(ex) s⁻¹ ΔG kcal mol⁻¹ ΔΔG kcal mol⁻¹ SN.F34C 035.3 1.00E−03 1.98E−03 2.62E−04 1.2 0 SN.F34C 3 35.3 1.00E−03 1.98E−031.82E−04 1.4 0.3 SN.F34C 6 35.3 1.00E−03 1.98E−03 1.35E−04 1.6 0.5SN.F34C 12 35.3 1.00E−03 1.98E−03 8.60E−05 1.9 0.7 SN.F34C 24 35.31.00E−03 1.98E−03 4.60E−05 2.3 1.1 SN.L36C 0 35.3 1.00E−03 1.98E−033.60E−04 0.9 0 SN.L36C 3 35.3 1.00E−03 1.98E−03 1.80E−04 1.4 0.5 SN.L36C6 35.3 1.00E−03 1.98E−03 1.30E−04 1.6 0.7 SN.L36C 12 35.3 1.00E−031.98E−03 6.10E−05 2.1 1.2 SN.L36C 24 35.3 1.00E−03 1.98E−03 3.40E−05 2.51.6 ecRBP.L62C 0 48.9 1.00E−03 6.05E−03 9.90E−03 1.0 0 ecRBP.L62C 1.548.9 1.00E−03 6.05E−03 5.10E−03 1.5 0.5 ecRBP.L62C 3 48.9 1.00E−036.05E−03 3.60E−03 1.8 0.7 ecRBP.L62C 6 48.9 1.00E−03 6.05E−03 1.90E−042.2 1.2 ecRBP.L62C 12 48.9 1.00E−03 6.05E−03 1.10E−04 2.6 1.5 ecRBP.L62C24 48.9 1.00E−03 6.05E−03 9.10E−04 2.7 1.6 ecRBP.A188C 0 54.6 1.00E−039.40E−03 2.17E−03 0.8 0 ecRBP.A188C 1.5 54.6 1.00E−03 9.40E−03 1.41E−031.1 0.3 ecRBP.A188C 3 54.6 1.00E−03 9.40E−03 9.70E−04 1.4 0.6ecRBP.A188C 6 54.6 1.00E−03 9.40E−03 7.30E−04 1.6 0.8 ecRBP.A188C 1254.6 1.00E−03 9.40E−03 3.20E−04 2.2 1.4 ecRBP.A188C 24 54.6 1.00E−039.40E−03 1.90E−04 2.5 1.7 ecMBP.T157C 0 63.3 1.00E−03 1.79E−02 5.10E−042.4 0 ecMBP.T157C 6 63.3 1.00E−03 1.79E−02 2.50E−04 2.9 0.5 ecMBP.T157C12 63.3 1.00E−03 1.79E−02 1.80E−04 3.1 0.7 ecMBP.T157C 24 63.3 1.00E−031.79E−02 1.30E−04 3.3 0.9 ecMBP.T157C 48 63.3 1.00E−03 1.79E−02 9.10E−053.5 1.2 ecMBP.S263C 0 63.3 1.00E−03 1.79E−02 5.30E−04 2.3 0 ecMBP.S263C6 63.3 1.00E−03 1.79E−02 3.50E−04 2.6 0.3 ecMBP.S263C 12 63.3 1.00E−031.79E−02 2.60E−04 2.8 0.5 ecMBP.S263C 24 63.3 1.00E−03 1.79E−02 1.60E−043.2 0.8 ecMBP.S263C 48 63.3 1.00E−03 1.79E−02 1.20E−04 3.4 1.0

The equation

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta \; G_{U}} = {{RT}\; {\ln ( \frac{k_{int} - k_{label}}{k_{label}} )}}} & \lbrack 15\rbrack\end{matrix}$

applies only if the labeling conditions were fully in the EX2 limit,when k_(close)>>k_(int). As labeling reagent concentration increases,k_(int) increases concomitantly and eventually k_(int) will become equalto or greater than k_(close). Under these conditions, the observedlabeling rate was determined solely by k_(open) and k_(label) and was nolonger a measure of stability. The reagent concentration andenvironmental conditions (i.e. pH and temperature) at which EX2conditions no longer apply varies according to the (un)folding kineticsof the protein. A simple test of reaction mechanism was to changereagent concentration and remeasure the kinetics: EX2 conditions weresatisfied if the change in the observed labeling rate was proportionalto the change in reagent concentration (see FIG. 9).

Determining Intrinsic Reaction Rates of Unprotected Cysteines

The iodoacetyl moiety of IAM-biotin (EZ-Link™ Iodoacetyl-PEG2-Biotin;Pierce; 21334) reacts primarily with free thiolate to form a stablethioether bond. Because thiolate was the predominant reactive species,the reaction rate was dependent on the pK_(a) of cysteine (˜8.6)relative to solution pH (which was set to 7.6). The k_(int) valuesreported here were only valid for pH 7.6. k_(int) was determined for anunprotected cysteine by reacting IAM-biotin with L-glutathione (GSH)(Sigma; G4251) and monitoring the absorbance of the liberated iodide ion(ε₂₂₆=12,600M⁻¹ cm⁻¹ at 226 nm) as function of time. Second-order rateconstants for the reaction of IAM-biotin with GSH were measured underpseudo first-order conditions at 25° C., 35° C., 45° C. and 55° C. (80μM IAM-biotin, 800 μM GSH, 25 mM MOPS, 100 mM KCl and pH 7.6) andanalyzed in terms of the Arrhenius equation (see FIG. 10). The slope(−E_(a)/R) and pre-exponential factor (ln A) were found to be−8.2×10³±0.1×10³ and 27.1±0.5 s⁻¹ respectively, enabling k_(int) to becalculated at any temperature. k_(int) values derived from unfoldedproteins were in direct agreement with the GSH-derived k_(int) values.

Example 6 Measuring Conformational Free Energies by QCR

The QCR experiment was designed to determine the Gibbs free energy ofglobal protein unfolding by measuring the reactivity of wild-type ormutant cysteines buried in a hydrophobic core. The QCR approach wasdemonstrated in three model proteins, SN (SEQ ID NO:7), ecRBP (SEQ IDNO:8) and ecMBP (SEQ ID NO:9) mutated to contain cysteine probes locatedin internal microenvironments that flank ligand-binding sites, but donot contact directly bound metals, inhibitors, or ligands (see FIG. 11).These mutant proteins were produced in 200 μL batches by cell-freecoupled transcription and translation in E. coli extract. Followingaffinity purification, which typically yields 0.4 to 1 μg of protein,the reactivity of the buried cysteines was determined by timed end-pointanalysis experiments in which the modified protein species wereseparated by gel electrophoresis and quantified by densitometry. SeeFIG. 8 and Example 5. This approach uses approximately 0.5 picomoles(˜10 nanograms) of protein per time point and can use a variety ofthiol-reactive reagents that alter electrophoretic mobility or werehighly fluorescent.

The QCR method exploits the conformational fluctuations of a protein tomeasure conformational free energy. Cysteines that were protected in thefolded ensemble can be modified by thiol-reactive probe only by completeexposure to bulk solvent by transient unfolding reactions, as describedby a two-step reaction scheme:

Unfolding free energies (ΔG_(U)) can be determined under EX2 conditions(k_(close)>>k_(int)) by measuring k_(label), the rate constant forlabeling a protected cysteine at a specified concentration of thiolprobe [P]

$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{k_{label} = \frac{k_{open}k_{int}}{( {k_{open} + k_{close} + k_{int}} )}} \\{\underset{{EX}\; 2}{\cong}\frac{k_{open}k_{int}}{( {k_{open} + k_{close}} )}} \\{= \frac{k_{int}}{( {1 + ^{\Delta \; {G_{U}/{RT}}}} )}}\end{matrix} & \lbrack 16\rbrack\end{matrix}$

where ΔG_(U) was related to the closing and opening reaction asΔG_(U)=RT ln k_(close)/k_(open), and k_(int) was the product of [P] andthe biomolecular rate constant for the reaction of an unprotectedcysteine (k_(int)=k[P]). Values for k_(int) can be obtained from thereactivity of unprotected cysteine residues in model compounds orunfolded proteins for the accurate determination of ΔG_(U) (see Example5). Rearrangement of equation 3 yields conformational free energy

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta \; G_{U}} = {{RT}\; {\ln ( \frac{k_{int} - k_{label}}{k_{label}} )}}} & \lbrack 17\rbrack\end{matrix}$

A buried cysteine can be labeled as a result of local, subglobal orglobal unfolding transitions. The predominant mechanism of cysteinemodification can be converted from local or partial unfolding to globalunfolding by setting up conditions under which global stability wasdiminished (e.g. by addition of denaturation or by increasingtemperature). The range of conditions under which access to globalunfolding predominates was referred to as the global unfolding window ofobservation (GUWO). To ensure that the buried cysteines report globalfree energies (i.e. ΔG_(U)), QCR experiments were always performedwithin a GUWO. Temperature was chosen to access the GUWO and measureglobal unfolding free energies as a function of temperature (ΔG_(U)(T)),described by the Gibbs-Helmholtz relationship

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta \; {G_{U}(T)}} = {{\Delta \; {H_{m}( {1 - \frac{T}{T_{m}}} )}} - {\Delta \; {C_{p}( {( {T_{m} - T} ) + {T\; \ln \frac{T}{T_{m}}}} )}}}} & \lbrack 18\rbrack\end{matrix}$

where T_(m) was the midpoint of thermal denaturation, ΔH_(m) theenthalpy of unfolding, and ΔC_(p) the change in heat capacity ofunfolding. The temperature range over which observations can be made wasdetermined by the limits where differences between k_(label) and k_(int)exceed experimental error, EX2 conditions prevailed, and the GUWO waspresent. See FIG. 12. The first limits were set by the accuracy of themeasurement of the labeling rate constants: an upper limit occurs at atemperature (maxT_(exp)) and free energy (minΔG_(exp)) ˜10° C. aboveT_(m) (red-dashed arrows) where the difference of k_(label) and k_(int)was within experimental error; a lower limit occurs at a temperature(minT_(exp)) and free energy (maxΔG_(exp)) ˜10-20° C. below T_(m),(greendashed arrows) where increased stability sufficiently reducesk_(label) (eqs. 16 and 17) such that it appears to be independent oftemperature within experimental error. The second limit was set in somecases where the mechanism of cysteine protection (i.e. local or globalunfolding) was dependent on temperature. Such cases were manifested as adeviation of the observed temperature dependence of ΔG_(U) from thatexpected for global unfolding. Global unfolding conditions prevailwithin ˜10-20° C. of T_(m), which was referred to as the globalunfolding window of observation (GUWO). The black line illustrates acase in which there was no such switch (modeled by eq. 18), and its GUWOextends over the entire temperature range; the grey line representsswitching between global and local unfolding with a concomitanttemperature limit for the GUWO (modeled by eq. 4 of Bai et al., Proteins20(1):4-14 (1994)). The third limit was set at a point where EX1conditions prevail and k_(close) no longer exceeds k_(int) (notillustrated). This may occur as stability was diminished (ΔG_(U)<1kcal/mol) or if the concentration of thiol probe [P] was too high. Lossof EX2 conditions was manifested as a loss of the linear dependence ofk_(label) on [P] and can be remedied by reducing [P]. The overalltemperature range at which observations can be made was the intersectionof all three of these conditions (black and gray bars). This temperaturerange covered a small portion of a Gibbs-Helmholtz curve. Consequently,values for ΔH_(m) and ΔC_(p) derived from a fit of the temperaturedependence of ΔG_(U) were usually underdetermined, and values for ΔC_(p)were assigned a priori to derive reasonable estimates for ΔH_(m) andT_(m) from stabilities measured within the GUWO.

Using a total of only ˜12.5 picomoles of protein (˜2.5 picomoles or ˜50nanograms per temperature point), Gibbs-Helmholtz profiles weredetermined for two cysteine mutants of SN and ecRBP. See FIG. 13.Derived values for ΔH_(m) and T_(m) were relatively insensitive toΔC_(p) values within the range of 2-5 kcal mol⁻¹ K⁻¹, which wasconsistent with previous experimentally determined values for proteinsin general (see Gomez et al., Proteins 22: 404-412 (1995); Razvi et al.,Prot. Sci. 15:1569-1578 (2006); and Rees et al., Prot. Sci. 10:1187-1194 (2001)). All four cysteine mutants were thermallydestabilized: the apparent T_(m) values of SN variants F34C (40±1° C.)and L36C (39±1° C.) were ˜13.0° C. below wild-type (53.0° C.)(Talla-Singh et al., Proteins 71: 1607-1616 (2008)); the apparent T_(m)values of ecRBP variants L62C (54±1° C.) and A188C were ˜8° C. belowwild-type (62.6° C.) (Prajapati et al., Biochemistry 46: 10339-10352(2007)). The extrapolated ΔG^(o) _(U) at 20° C. for SN mutants F34C andL36C, using ΔH_(m) values of 72±1 and 71±1 kcal mol⁻¹ respectively, was2.7±0.1 kcal mol⁻¹ and 2.6 ±0.1 kcal mol⁻¹, whereas the stability ofwild-type SN reported by chemical denaturation was 5.5±0.1 kcal mol⁻¹(Green et al., Biochemistry 31: 5717-5728 (1992)). Similarly, the ΔG^(o)_(U) at 25° C. for ecRBP mutants L62C and A188C, using ΔH_(m) values of81±2 and 91±4 kcal mol⁻¹ respectively, was 3.2±0.1 kcal mol⁻¹ and4.1±0.1 kcal mol⁻¹, whereas the stability of wild-type reported bychemical denaturation was 5.9±0.4 kcal mol⁻¹ (Prajapati et al., (2007)Proteins 66: 480-491). This decrease in stability caused by theintroduction of cysteine was typical for mutations in the hydrophobiccore of these and other proteins. See, e.g., Green et al.,) Biochemistry31: 5717-5728 (1992; Kim et al., J. Prot. Chem. 15: 731-736 (1996); Bavaet al., Nucleic Acids Res. 32: D120-D121 (2004).

Example 7 Measuring Ligand Affinity by Linkage Analysis of ProteinStability

The modulation of protein stability by binding of metals, ligands,activators, inhibitors, substrates, nucleic acid or other proteins canbe used to measure binding affinities within a GUWO. For a protein witha single binding site, the free energy of ligand binding was describedby

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta \; G_{bind}^{o}} = {{{RT}\; \ln \; P} = {{RT}\; {\ln ( {1 + \frac{\lbrack L\rbrack}{K_{D}}} )}}}} & \lbrack 19\rbrack\end{matrix}$

where P was the binding polynomial, [L] the total ligand concentration,and K_(D) the apparent dissociation constant of the ligand. For proteinswith multiple ligand-binding sites, P was expanded as described inEquations 21-36 below.

Equations that Describe the Effects of Multiple Ligand Binding

For a macromolecule with a single binding site, the relativeconcentrations of unliganded and liganded species was described by thebinding polynomial

$\begin{matrix}{P = ( {1 + \frac{\lbrack L\rbrack}{K_{D}}} )} & \lbrack 21\rbrack\end{matrix}$

The expression for a single-site binding isotherm was derived from thedifferentiation of ln(P) with respect to ln(L) using the chain-rule

$\begin{matrix}{\overset{\_}{X} = {\frac{{\ln}\; P}{{\ln}\; L} = {{\frac{{\ln}\; P}{P} \cdot \frac{P}{L} \cdot \frac{L}{{\ln}\; L}} = {\frac{K_{A}\lbrack L\rbrack}{1 + {K_{A}\lbrack L\rbrack}} = \frac{\frac{\lbrack L\rbrack}{K_{D}}}{1 + \frac{\lbrack L\rbrack}{K_{D}}}}}}} & \lbrack 22\rbrack\end{matrix}$

where X bar was the number of moles of ligand bound per mole ofmacromolecule and K_(A) and K_(D) were the relevant equilibriumconstants for the law of mass action

$\begin{matrix}{{M + {L\; Ä\; {ML}}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{A} = \frac{\lbrack{ML}\rbrack}{\lbrack M\rbrack \lbrack L\rbrack}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{A} = \frac{1}{K_{D}}}} & \lbrack {23,24,25} \rbrack\end{matrix}$

X bar expressed in differential form provides the conceptual linkbetween a ligand-binding isotherm and the free energy of ligand binding(ΔG_(bind)); the area underneath a plot of X bar versus ln(L) wasproportional to the free energy of binding. ΔG_(bind) was obtained byintegrating the area under the binding isotherm (i.e. by integratingEquation 22) and multiplying by the proportionality constant RT

ΔG _(bind)=RT∫ Xd ln L=RT∫d ln P=RT ln P+ΔG _(ref)   [26]

where ΔG_(ref) was the reference free energy of the macromolecule in theabsence of ligand. In the specific case of a single binding site,Equation 26 was expressed as

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta \; G_{bind}} = {{{RT}\; \ln \; P} = {{{RT}\; {\ln ( {1 + \frac{\lbrack L\rbrack}{K_{D}}} )}} + {\Delta \; G_{ref}}}}} & \lbrack 27\rbrack\end{matrix}$

In cases where a macromolecule binds more than one ligand the expressionfor ΔG_(bind) was more complex. Consider for example the binding of Ca²⁺and pdTP (a nucleotide inhibitor) to the enzyme Staphylococcal nuclease(SN). Reaction schemes 28 thru 33 describe the formation of the relevantbinary and ternary complexes of an enzyme (E) combined with ligands A(Ca²⁺) and B (pdTP).

$\begin{matrix}{{E + {A\; Ä\; {EA}}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{1} = \frac{\lbrack{EA}\rbrack}{\lbrack E\rbrack \lbrack A\rbrack}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{1} = {90\mspace{14mu} {µM}}}} & \lbrack 28\rbrack \\{{E + {B\; Ä\; {EB}}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{2} = \frac{\lbrack{EB}\rbrack}{\lbrack E\rbrack \lbrack B\rbrack}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{2} = {500\mspace{14mu} {µM}}}} & \lbrack 29\rbrack \\{{{EA} + {B\; Ä\; {EAB}}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{3} = \frac{\lbrack{EAB}\rbrack}{\lbrack{EA}\rbrack \lbrack B\rbrack}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{3} = {20\mspace{14mu} {µM}}}} & \lbrack 30\rbrack \\{{{EB} + {A\; Ä\; {EAB}}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{4} = \frac{\lbrack{EAB}\rbrack}{\lbrack{EB}\rbrack \lbrack A\rbrack}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{4} = {2.5\mspace{14mu} {µM}}}} & \lbrack 31\rbrack \\{{E + {{AB}\; Ä\; {EAB}}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{5} = \frac{\lbrack{EAB}\rbrack}{\lbrack E\rbrack \lbrack{AB}\rbrack}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{5} = {2.2\mspace{14mu} {µM}}}} & \lbrack 32\rbrack \\{{A + {B\; Ä\; {AB}}};\mspace{14mu} {K_{6} = \frac{\lbrack{AB}\rbrack}{\lbrack A\rbrack \lbrack B\rbrack}}} & \lbrack 33\rbrack\end{matrix}$

The binding of Ca²⁺ and pdTP to SN was fully described by

$\begin{matrix}{P = {1 + \frac{\lbrack A\rbrack}{K_{1}} + \frac{\lbrack B\rbrack}{K_{2}} + \frac{\lbrack A\rbrack \lbrack B\rbrack}{K_{1}K_{3}} + \frac{\lbrack B\rbrack \lbrack A\rbrack}{K_{2}K_{4}} + \frac{\lbrack{AB}\rbrack}{K_{5}}}} & \lbrack 34\rbrack\end{matrix}$

and ΔG_(bind) was described by

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta \; G_{bind}} = {{{RT}\; {\ln ( {1 + \frac{\lbrack A\rbrack}{K_{1}} + \frac{\lbrack B\rbrack}{K_{2}} + \frac{\lbrack A\rbrack \lbrack B\rbrack}{K_{1}K_{3}} + \frac{\lbrack B\rbrack \lbrack A\rbrack}{K_{2}K_{4}} + \frac{\lbrack{AB}\rbrack}{K_{5}}} )}} + {\Delta \; G_{ref}}}} & \lbrack 35\rbrack\end{matrix}$

It has been shown that Ca²⁺ and pdTP bind synergistically to SN.Consequently, the dissociation constant K₅ can be determined independentof the dissociation constants K₁, K₂, K₃ and K₄ by measuring the ligandbinding energetics of SN at concentrations of [AB] below K₁, K₂, and K₃(i.e., 3 to 24 μM). This approach simplifies Equation 35 considerably

$\begin{matrix}{{\Delta \; G_{bind}} = {{RT}\; {\ln ( {1 + \frac{\lbrack{AB}\rbrack}{K_{5}}} )}}} & \lbrack 36\rbrack\end{matrix}$

By thermodynamic linkage, any change in ΔG_(U) caused predominantly byligand binding (Scheme 1) is

ΔG _(bind)=ΔΔ^(L) G _(U)=Δ^(L) G _(U)−Δ^(apo) G _(U)   [20]

where Δ^(L)G_(U) and Δ^(apo)G_(U) were the stability of the protein inthe presence of absence of ligand respectively. Equation 20 was used toobtain apparent K_(D) values from either the ligand dependence ofΔΔG_(U) (by curve fitting), or from a single measurement of ΔΔG_(U).

Both ecRBP and ecMBP had a single ligand-binding site located within theinterface between their N-terminal and C-terminal domains. With ˜10picomoles (˜200 nanograms) of protein, binding affinities weredetermined by QCR experiments using two independent cysteine reportersintroduced into each domain. ecRBP variants L62C (N-terminal domain) andA188C (C-terminal domain) reported ribose-binding affinities of 2.8±0.2μM (at 48.9° C.) and 1.8±0.1 μM (at 54.3° C.) respectively (FIG. 14A);ecMBP variants T157C (C-terminal domain) and S263C (N-terminal domain)reported maltosebinding affinities of 8.0±0.2 μM and 11.8±0.8 μMrespectively at 63.3° C. (FIG. 14B).

Proteins that bind more than one ligand, either independently orsynergistically, have a more complex free energy landscape that involvesa number of different ligand bound species. QCR was used to characterizethe binding of a calcium ion (Ca²⁺) and a 5′-monophosphate inhibitor(pdTp) to SN. By themselves, Ca²⁺ and pdTp bind to SN with affinities of˜500 μM and μ90 μM (Serpersu et al., Biochemistry 25: 68-77 (1986)).Using ˜5 picomoles (˜100 nanograms) of protein, the K_(D) values of eachbinary complex was determined by QCR. See FIG. 15A. SN variant L36C wasincubated in the absence (black) and presence of 1 mM Ca²⁺ (purple) or50 μM pdTp (orange) at 35.3° C. Observed k_(label) of 3.0×10⁻⁴,1.2×10⁻⁴, 9.2×10⁻⁵ s⁻¹ respectively correspond to an increase instability (ΔΔG_(U)) of SN/L36C in the presence of 1 mM Ca²⁺ or 50 μMpdTp of 0.6±0.2 and 0.7±0.2 kcal mol⁻¹, which corresponds to apparentK_(D) values of 600±200 μM and 23±4 μM respectively. Binding of Ca²⁺ andpdTp was synergistic, as each exhibits a greater affinity (˜2 μM) for SNin the presence of the other. Consequently, a 2:1 molar solution ofCa²⁺:pdTp can be treated thermodynamically as a single, binary ligandCa²⁺-pdTp. Using ˜10 picomoles (˜200 nanograms) of protein, the affinityof Ca²⁺-pdTp for SN variants F34C and L36C was determined to be 4.8±0.2μM and 2.2±0.1 μM respectively at 35.3° C. See FIG. 15B.

Example 8 Inferring Enzyme Activity by QCR

Binding of substrates and products also affected enzyme stability in adetectable manner. QCR therefore provided a means to infer enzymaticactivity within a GUWO using picomole quantities of protein withouthaving to devise a reaction-specific kinetic assay. SN, a5′-phosphodiesterase that hydrolizes single-stranded and double-strandedDNA and RNA was used to demonstrate this aspect. It selectively cleavesthe phosphodiester bond between the phosphate and 5′-hydroxyl, producingshort 3′-derived oligonucleotides (which do not bind to SN) and5′-derived mononucleotides (which bind to and inhibit SN) (Cuatrecasaset al., J. Biol. Chem. 242: 1541-1547 (1967)). In the absence ofcalcium, SN was inactive and the binding of substrate alone can bemeasured by QCR. Addition of 4.7 μM substrate DNA in the absence ofcalcium produces no observable effect on the stability reported byCys-36. See FIG. 15A. SN variant L36C was incubated at 35.3° C. in theabsence of substrate (black) and 4.7 μM single-stranded DNA (green), 4.7μM single-stranded DNA with 1 mM Ca²⁺ (blue), and 12 μM of a 2:1 molarratio of Ca²⁺ and pdTp (red). See FIG. 15C. Observed k_(label) of3.0×10⁻⁴, 2.8×10⁻⁴, 7.5×10⁻⁵ and 5.9×10⁻⁵ s⁻¹ respectively correspond toΔΔG_(U) values of 0.1±0.2, 0.9±0.2, and 1.0±0.2 kcal mol⁻¹. Followingaddition of 1 mM calcium, the substrate DNA was rapidly degraded. SeeFIG. 15C, inset. The L36C mutant was enzymatically active (inset; 1%agarose gel): 1.5 kb double-stranded DNA fragment (lane 2) digestedcompletely (lane 1) by incubation with 0.05 μM SN/F34C at 20° C. for 10min in a buffer of 1 mM Ca²⁺, 25 mM MOPS, 100 mM KCl and pH 7.6. TheQCR-determined stability of SN/L36C was increased by 0.9±0.1 kcal mol⁻¹,corresponding to an apparent binding affinity of 1.4±0.4 μM, which wasnearly identical to the affinity of the inhibitor pdTp in the presenceof 1 mM Ca²⁺, and therefore was presumably due to the effect of productbinding.

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1. A method of optimizing an mRNA sequence for protein expression,comprising determining an AU composition of a first percentage in a lastportion of a protein coding region of the mRNA sequence; altering the AUcomposition of the last portion of the protein coding region of theselected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence,such that the AU composition of the last portion of the coding region inthe optimized mRNA sequence is a second percentage.
 2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the method further comprises at least one: altering theAU composition of a first portion of the coding region of the selectedmRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence, suchthat the AU composition of the first portion of the coding region of theoptimized mRNA sequence is a third percentage; altering the AUcomposition of a middle portion of the selected mRNA sequence, whereinthe middle portion is between the first portion and the last portion ofthe coding region, such that the AU composition of the middle region ofthe optimized mRNA sequence is a fourth percentage; altering thesequence of a first portion of the coding region of the selected mRNAsequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that thefirst portion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence ispredicted to have less secondary structure relative to the first portionof the coding region of the selected mRNA sequence; altering thesequence of a last portion of the coding region of the selected mRNAsequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that thelast portion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence ispredicted to have less secondary structure relative to the portion ofthe coding region of the selected mRNA sequence; altering the sequenceof a middle portion of the coding region of the selected mRNA sequencewithout changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that the middleportion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence is predictedto have less secondary structure relative to the portion of the codingregion of the selected mRNA sequence; or altering the sequence of thecoding region of the selected mRNA sequence such that at least one codonis replaced with a codon that is used at higher frequency in a selectedhost cell.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the method furthercomprises altering the AU composition of a first portion of the codingregion of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded aminoacid sequence, such that the AU composition of the first portion of thecoding region of the optimized mRNA sequence is a third percentage. 4.The method of claim 3, wherein the method further comprises altering thesequence of a first portion of the coding region of the selected mRNAsequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that thefirst portion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence ispredicted to have less secondary structure relative to the first portionof the coding region of the selected mRNA sequence.
 5. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the method further comprises at least two of alteringthe AU composition of a first portion of the coding region of theselected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence,such that the AU composition of the first portion of the coding regionof the optimized mRNA sequence is a third percentage; altering thesequence of a first portion of the coding region of the selected mRNAsequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that thefirst portion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence ispredicted to have less secondary structure relative to the first portionof the coding region of the selected mRNA sequence; altering thesequence of a last portion of the coding region of the selected mRNAsequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that thelast portion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence ispredicted to have less secondary structure relative to the portion ofthe coding region of the selected mRNA sequence; altering the sequenceof the coding region of the selected mRNA sequence such that at leastone codon is replaced with a codon that is used at higher frequency in aselected host cell; or altering the AU composition of a middle portionof the selected mRNA sequence, wherein the middle portion is between thefirst portion and the last portion of the coding region, such that theAU composition of the middle region of the optimized mRNA sequence is afourth percentage.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the method furthercomprises at least three of: altering the AU composition of a firstportion of the coding region of the selected mRNA sequence withoutchanging the encoded amino acid sequence, such that the AU compositionof the first portion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA sequenceis a third percentage; altering the sequence of a first portion of thecoding region of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the encodedamino acid sequence, such that the first portion of the coding region ofthe optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to have less secondarystructure relative to the first portion of the coding region of theselected mRNA sequence; altering the sequence of a last portion of thecoding region of the selected mRNA sequence without changing the encodedamino acid sequence, such that the last portion of the coding region ofthe optimized mRNA sequence is predicted to have less secondarystructure relative to the portion of the coding region of the selectedmRNA sequence; altering the sequence of the coding region of theselected mRNA sequence such that at least one codon is replaced with acodon that is used at higher frequency in a selected host cell; oraltering the AU composition of a middle portion of the selected mRNAsequence, wherein the middle portion is between the first portion andthe last portion of the coding region, such that the AU composition ofthe middle region of the optimized mRNA sequence is a fourth percentage.7. A method of determining the stability of a protein, comprising:mutating a selected amino acid residue of the protein to a cysteine toform a mutant protein, wherein the selected residue is predicted to belocated in a hydrophobic core of the protein; incubating the mutantprotein with a thiol-reactive probe under conditions that allow forthiol-reactive probe binding; and detecting a probe-labeled mutantprotein.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein probe-labeled mutant proteinis detected at two or more time points.
 9. The method of claim 8,further comprising determining the rate at which probe-labeled mutantprotein is formed.
 10. A method of determining the affinity of a ligandfor a protein, comprising: mutating a selected amino acid residue of theprotein to a cysteine to form a mutant protein, wherein the selectedresidue is predicted to be located in a hydrophobic core of the protein;incubating the mutant protein with a thiol-reactive probe in thepresence of the ligand; and detecting a probe-labeled mutant proteinformed in the presence of the ligand.
 11. The method of claim 10,wherein the method further comprises, in a separate reaction: incubatingthe mutant protein with a thiol-reactive probe in the absence of theligand; and detecting a probe-labeled mutant protein formed in theabsence of the ligand.
 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the methodfurther comprises determining the affinity of the ligand for theprotein.
 13. A computer readable storage medium comprising a set ofinstructions that are executable by a microprocessor to perform thefunction of optimizing an mRNA sequence for protein expression thatcomprises determining an AU composition of a first percentage in a lastportion of a protein coding region of the mRNA sequence; and alteringthe AU composition of the last portion of the protein coding region ofthe selected mRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino acidsequence, such that the AU composition of the last portion of the codingregion in the optimized mRNA sequence is a second percentage.
 14. Thecomputer readable storage medium of claim 13, wherein the set ofinstructions further comprises at least one instruction for altering theAU composition of a first portion of the coding region of the selectedmRNA sequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence, suchthat the AU composition of the first portion of the coding region of theoptimized mRNA sequence is a third percentage; altering the AUcomposition of a middle portion of the selected mRNA sequence, whereinthe middle portion is between the first portion and the last portion ofthe coding region, such that the AU composition of the middle region ofthe optimized mRNA sequence is a fourth percentage; altering thesequence of a first portion of the coding region of the selected mRNAsequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that thefirst portion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence ispredicted to have less secondary structure relative to the first portionof the coding region of the selected mRNA sequence; altering thesequence of a last portion of the coding region of the selected mRNAsequence without changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that thelast portion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence ispredicted to have less secondary structure relative to the portion ofthe coding region of the selected mRNA sequence; altering the sequenceof a middle portion of the coding region of the selected mRNA sequencewithout changing the encoded amino acid sequence, such that the middleportion of the coding region of the optimized mRNA sequence is predictedto have less secondary structure relative to the portion of the codingregion of the selected mRNA sequence; or altering the sequence of thecoding region of the selected mRNA sequence such that at least one codonis replaced with a codon that is used at higher frequency in a selectedhost cell.